University of Isfahan Literary Arts 20088027 18 3 2026 09 23 An Analytical Study of the Development of Explicit Metaphor in Iranian National Epics (With a Focus on Shahnameh, Bahmannameh, Garshaspnameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh) An Analytical Study of the Development of Explicit Metaphor in Iranian National Epics (With a Focus on Shahnameh, Bahmannameh, Garshaspnameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh) 35 54 30190 10.22108/liar.2025.146797.2517 FA Mahdie Jalali Ph. D. Student of Persian Literature, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabataba'i University Tehran, Iran 0009-0007-9248-6050 Gholamreza Mastaliparsa Associate Professor, Department of Persian Literature, Faculty of Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabataba'i University Tehran, Iran Hosein Aghahosaini Professor of the Department of Persian Language and Literature, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 0000-0009-0009-0009 Journal Article 2025 09 24 Epic literature, owing to its inherent nature, is deeply rooted in figurative language, particularly metaphor. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the metaphors employed in Shahnameh, Garshaspnameh, Bahmannameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh. The research method is descriptive-analytical, based on the study of epic texts, extraction, and categorization of metaphors, followed by their analysis based on conceptual domains and frequency of use. Each work, aligned with its subject matter and historical context, introduces specific linguistic innovations. Shahnameh, due to its vast influence and impact, is regarded as the “mother text” for other epic works, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, tendency towards composite metaphors, and fusion of epic and lyric elements, is the most creative work in this domain. Natural elements have the highest frequency of metaphorical use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and mythical elements. The research results indicate that the enduring value of epic works is not determined by the frequency of metaphor use, but by how language, particularly metaphor, is applied. This fundamental technique plays a crucial role in reflecting the national, cultural, and mythological identity of Persian epic literature. In conclusion, it can be stated that the evolution of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a “narrative and heroic function” towards an “aesthetic and lyrical function.” Keywords: Epic, Metaphor, Traditional Rhetoric, Persian Literature. Introduction Among the various forms of epic literature, national epics possess greater social significance. Although the poet does not directly inject personal emotions into the epic narrative, they shape the reader's perspective through the use of rhetorical devices. This paper examines the function of figurative language, particularly explicit metaphor, in five prominent epic works, aiming to analyze the evolution of metaphor and its reflection in these texts. Existing studies in this area are largely quantitative, comparing epic works without an in-depth exploration of their individual characteristics. The goal of this research is to explore the quality of explicit metaphors in these works and the influence of cultural, social, political, and geographical contexts on the creation of metaphors in epic texts. The research seeks to answer questions regarding the use of metaphor in these epics, its evolution, and its connection with the worldview, geography, and historical conditions of the poets. This study adopts a comparative approach to analyze five epic works that have seldom been examined together, allowing for a comprehensive investigation of the evolution of explicit metaphor. Additionally, this research focuses on the function of metaphors and their relationship with the structure of the epic, avoiding purely quantitative or descriptive analysis. Materials and Methods The research is conducted using statistical, descriptive-analytical, and library-based methods. A quantitative analysis of metaphors across the five texts and a qualitative content analysis focused on traditional rhetoric and the established metaphorical structures were employed. The five epic works examined are Shahnameh, Bahmannameh, Garshaspnameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh. To manage the data volume, 1,000 couplets are selected from each epic, based on the chronological order of the works. The study analyzes the use of various types of metaphors (simple explicit, embellished explicit, absolute explicit, and embellished simple metaphors) in these works. It should be noted that the chronological order of the works is not definitively established but is based on the strongest hypotheses, as clarified in the text of the paper. The 1,000 couplets are chosen from the section dealing with the birth of the heroes, except for the Bahmannameh, which begins with the reign of Bahman. Tools used for analysis include note-taking from the couplets containing various types of metaphors, determining the type of metaphor, analyzing them, plotting frequency graphs, and calculating percentages. The data were gathered through studying the original texts, critical sources, and relevant research. Research Findings In the analysis of explicit metaphors in five national epics of Iran, the Shahnameh utilizes the highest frequency of pure explicit metaphors, whereas the metaphorical embellishments (or enhanced metaphors) account for the smallest percentage. In the Garshaspnameh, metaphorical embellishments are the most prevalent, while other types of metaphors are used at an average level. In the Bahmannameh, explicit metaphorical embellishments are specifically employed to maintain the purity of the language. In the Boruznameh, the usage of both pure explicit metaphors and metaphorical embellishments is observed in equal measure. The Samnameh notably makes extensive use of compound metaphors and, with the greatest diversity in metaphorical forms, reveals the peak of euphuistic language. In these epics, metaphors are categorized into six main types: natural, aristocratic, divine, euphuistic, war-related, and pre-Islamic. The most frequent metaphors are natural, followed by human and euphuistic metaphors. Other types of metaphors are used approximately at equal levels. Based on these findings, the Shahnameh is recognized as the “mother text” for other epic works, and the Garshaspnameh exhibits more complexity than the Shahnameh. The Bahmannameh acts as a bridge between epic poetry and emotional euphuism, the Boruznameh largely imitates the Shahnameh, and the Samnameh demonstrates the greatest innovation in metaphor usage. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings of this research indicate that Persian epic works are both unified in their literary and cultural foundations and exhibit the creativity and innovation of each individual work. Shahnameh, due to its scope and influence, serves as the central pillar of this literary tradition, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, stands out as the most creative work. The combination of tradition and innovation in these works highlights the richness of Persian epic literature and the poets’ ability to create lasting images. The use of metaphor, simile, and exaggeration, particularly in sensitive scenes such as the description of hero unions, demonstrates the poet’s awareness of the ethical and aesthetic functions of metaphorical language. The study shows that metaphor is a fundamental component of epic literature, with nearly all the works, except Samnameh, employing similar frequencies of metaphor. Natural elements have the highest frequency of use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and pre-Islamic elements. The choice of these elements is not only influenced by other literary types but is primarily based on the need to create awe and maintain a connection with the general public. The similarities between the elements in the epics stem from the geographical and historical proximity of the poets, as well as the status of Shahnameh as the “mother text.” The analysis of the reflection of national identity shows that metaphors have played a crucial role in preserving ancient culture and distant myths. Samnameh, with its distinct geography and time, exhibits the greatest diversity in metaphors, blending heroic and lyrical metaphors. Overall, the development of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a narrative and heroic function to an aesthetic and lyrical one. Epic literature, owing to its inherent nature, is deeply rooted in figurative language, particularly metaphor. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the metaphors employed in Shahnameh, Garshaspnameh, Bahmannameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh. The research method is descriptive-analytical, based on the study of epic texts, extraction, and categorization of metaphors, followed by their analysis based on conceptual domains and frequency of use. Each work, aligned with its subject matter and historical context, introduces specific linguistic innovations. Shahnameh, due to its vast influence and impact, is regarded as the “mother text” for other epic works, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, tendency towards composite metaphors, and fusion of epic and lyric elements, is the most creative work in this domain. Natural elements have the highest frequency of metaphorical use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and mythical elements. The research results indicate that the enduring value of epic works is not determined by the frequency of metaphor use, but by how language, particularly metaphor, is applied. This fundamental technique plays a crucial role in reflecting the national, cultural, and mythological identity of Persian epic literature. In conclusion, it can be stated that the evolution of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a “narrative and heroic function” towards an “aesthetic and lyrical function.” Keywords: Epic, Metaphor, Traditional Rhetoric, Persian Literature. Introduction Among the various forms of epic literature, national epics possess greater social significance. Although the poet does not directly inject personal emotions into the epic narrative, they shape the reader's perspective through the use of rhetorical devices. This paper examines the function of figurative language, particularly explicit metaphor, in five prominent epic works, aiming to analyze the evolution of metaphor and its reflection in these texts. Existing studies in this area are largely quantitative, comparing epic works without an in-depth exploration of their individual characteristics. The goal of this research is to explore the quality of explicit metaphors in these works and the influence of cultural, social, political, and geographical contexts on the creation of metaphors in epic texts. The research seeks to answer questions regarding the use of metaphor in these epics, its evolution, and its connection with the worldview, geography, and historical conditions of the poets. This study adopts a comparative approach to analyze five epic works that have seldom been examined together, allowing for a comprehensive investigation of the evolution of explicit metaphor. Additionally, this research focuses on the function of metaphors and their relationship with the structure of the epic, avoiding purely quantitative or descriptive analysis. Materials and Methods The research is conducted using statistical, descriptive-analytical, and library-based methods. A quantitative analysis of metaphors across the five texts and a qualitative content analysis focused on traditional rhetoric and the established metaphorical structures were employed. The five epic works examined are Shahnameh, Bahmannameh, Garshaspnameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh. To manage the data volume, 1,000 couplets are selected from each epic, based on the chronological order of the works. The study analyzes the use of various types of metaphors (simple explicit, embellished explicit, absolute explicit, and embellished simple metaphors) in these works. It should be noted that the chronological order of the works is not definitively established but is based on the strongest hypotheses, as clarified in the text of the paper. The 1,000 couplets are chosen from the section dealing with the birth of the heroes, except for the Bahmannameh, which begins with the reign of Bahman. Tools used for analysis include note-taking from the couplets containing various types of metaphors, determining the type of metaphor, analyzing them, plotting frequency graphs, and calculating percentages. The data were gathered through studying the original texts, critical sources, and relevant research. Research Findings In the analysis of explicit metaphors in five national epics of Iran, the Shahnameh utilizes the highest frequency of pure explicit metaphors, whereas the metaphorical embellishments (or enhanced metaphors) account for the smallest percentage. In the Garshaspnameh, metaphorical embellishments are the most prevalent, while other types of metaphors are used at an average level. In the Bahmannameh, explicit metaphorical embellishments are specifically employed to maintain the purity of the language. In the Boruznameh, the usage of both pure explicit metaphors and metaphorical embellishments is observed in equal measure. The Samnameh notably makes extensive use of compound metaphors and, with the greatest diversity in metaphorical forms, reveals the peak of euphuistic language. In these epics, metaphors are categorized into six main types: natural, aristocratic, divine, euphuistic, war-related, and pre-Islamic. The most frequent metaphors are natural, followed by human and euphuistic metaphors. Other types of metaphors are used approximately at equal levels. Based on these findings, the Shahnameh is recognized as the “mother text” for other epic works, and the Garshaspnameh exhibits more complexity than the Shahnameh. The Bahmannameh acts as a bridge between epic poetry and emotional euphuism, the Boruznameh largely imitates the Shahnameh, and the Samnameh demonstrates the greatest innovation in metaphor usage. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings of this research indicate that Persian epic works are both unified in their literary and cultural foundations and exhibit the creativity and innovation of each individual work. Shahnameh, due to its scope and influence, serves as the central pillar of this literary tradition, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, stands out as the most creative work. The combination of tradition and innovation in these works highlights the richness of Persian epic literature and the poets’ ability to create lasting images. The use of metaphor, simile, and exaggeration, particularly in sensitive scenes such as the description of hero unions, demonstrates the poet’s awareness of the ethical and aesthetic functions of metaphorical language. The study shows that metaphor is a fundamental component of epic literature, with nearly all the works, except Samnameh, employing similar frequencies of metaphor. Natural elements have the highest frequency of use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and pre-Islamic elements. The choice of these elements is not only influenced by other literary types but is primarily based on the need to create awe and maintain a connection with the general public. The similarities between the elements in the epics stem from the geographical and historical proximity of the poets, as well as the status of Shahnameh as the “mother text.” The analysis of the reflection of national identity shows that metaphors have played a crucial role in preserving ancient culture and distant myths. Samnameh, with its distinct geography and time, exhibits the greatest diversity in metaphors, blending heroic and lyrical metaphors. Overall, the development of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a narrative and heroic function to an aesthetic and lyrical one.

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