https://liar.ui.ac.ir/ Literary Arts en daily 1 Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30700.html https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30159.html This study provides a systematic account of lexical fit in Qur’anic discourse, examining how word choice aligns with contextual flow (siyāq) and communicative situation (maqām). Using a descriptive–analytical, interdisciplinary approach, the study investigates semantic, morphological, syntactic, and phonological dimensions of Qur’anic vocabulary to explain why specific forms are selected over near-synonyms and alternative structures. The results show that Qur’anic diction is governed by a coherent pattern: lexical meaning, grammatical form, particles, and stylistic variation operate together to match the intended meaning and the psychological state of the addressee. Findings also indicate that features such as emphasis, softness vs. intensity, permanence vs. renewal (nominal vs. verbal choices), and rhetorical effects (fronting, ellipsis, shifts in address/iltifāt) are not incidental but context-motivated. The study argues that this rule-governed congruence between lexical selection and context constitutes a central dimension of Qur’anic lexical inimitability and contributes to its distinctive stylistic architecture and multilayered meaning production. Keywords: Lexical Congruence, Contextual Meaning, Rhetorical Miraculousness, Qur’anic Stylistics. Introduction The Qur’an’s linguistic distinctiveness is frequently discussed in terms of eloquence; however, a core and analyzable component of its rhetorical force lies in the precise congruence between lexical choice and contextual requirements. The present research addresses the following central problem: How does the Qur’an systematically harmonize “wording” (lafẓ) with context (siyāq) and communicative situation (maqām), and what rhetorical functions does this harmony generate? The scope of the study is lexical-contextual fitness at multiple linguistic levels (lexical semantics, morphology, syntax, and sound/stylistics). Its aims are (a) to identify recurring patterns governing context-appropriate lexical selection, (b) to describe how such patterns contribute to meaning-making and persuasive impact, and (c) to demonstrate how these patterns function as evidence for lexical inimitability and Qur’anic stylistics.The significance of the topic lies in moving beyond impressionistic claims toward a structured explanation of why a given expression is optimal in its specific placement. Prior scholarship in rhetoric, exegesis, and inimitability studies has treated notions such as “appropriateness to the situation”, fronting and postponement, ellipsis, and iltifāt; yet a consolidated, multi-level account that links these devices directly to lexical selection remains needed. Accordingly, the study formulates the following three research questions:What selection principles govern Qur’anic lexical fit across differing contexts?How do form-based choices (nominal/verbal patterns, particles, word order) implement these principles?What interpretive and rhetorical consequences follow from this contextual congruence? Materials and Methods This research employs a descriptive-analytical method with an interdisciplinary lens combining classical rhetoric and contemporary linguistic description. The materials consist of representative Qur’anic passages selected for their clear sensitivity to context-driven variation (e.g., near-synonym choice, shifts between nominal and verbal structures, particle selection, and stylistic transitions). Each example is analyzed within its immediate co-text and broader thematic frame to avoid isolating forms from discourse function. The analytical framework operates on four layers: (1) lexical-semantic analysis (fine-grained distinctions among near-synonyms and evaluative nuance), (2) morphological/formal analysis (patterns signaling permanence vs. renewal, intensity, and derivational meaning), (3) syntactic-functional analysis (word order, fronting, ellipsis, role assignment, and their effects such as restriction and emphasis), and (4) phonological/stylistic analysis (sound patterning where relevant and discourse-level devices such as iltifāt and stylistic alternation).The procedure follows a consistent sequence: identify the contextual demand (maqām), test plausible alternatives (near-synonyms or structural substitutes), and justify the selected form by explaining what meaning or rhetorical force would be weakened or altered under substitution. The main limitation is that the study prioritizes explanatory depth over statistical generalization; it seeks recurring interpretive principles rather than frequency-based claims. Research Findings The findings of the study show that Qur’anic lexical fit can be organized into recurrent, interlocking patterns. First, dictionary-level meaning is regularly calibrated to the discourse situation: among near-synonyms, the Qur’an selects the item whose nuance best matches the intended threat, mercy, praise, blame, or psychological stance of the audience. Second, lexical “qualities” (perceived softness/harshness, familiarity/strangeness, intensification) correlate with the surrounding rhetorical mode: promise and consolation tend to co-occur with smoother forms, while warning and reprimand favor more forceful diction. Third, the Qur’an exploits nominal vs. verbal structures: nominal forms tend to signal stability and permanence, whereas verbal forms—especially imperfective patterns—often encode renewal, continuation, and dynamic unfolding. Fourth, particles and prepositions are selected with high contextual sensitivity, where a change of particle would shift the intended relational meaning (e.g., supervision, attachment, elevation, causality). Fifth, syntactic role and deviation (fronting/postponement, ellipsis, and apparently “extra” elements) function as meaning-operators that produce restriction, emphasis, or interpretive focus, rather than mere ornamentation. Sixth, stylistic variation—especially iltifāt (shifts in person/voice)—serves discourse management: it can move the reader from narration to direct confrontation, sharpen moral evaluation, or differentiate audience groups within a single passage. Collectively, these patterns support the claim that Qur’anic lexical choices are systematically context-motivated and rhetorically consequential. Discussion of Results and Conclusion The results directly answer the study’s core problem: the harmony between lafẓ and siyāq/maqām is achieved through a multi-level selection system in which semantics, form, syntax, particles, and style mutually reinforce one another. This implies that many Qur’anic phenomena sometimes treated as optional (e.g., fronting, ellipsis, or particle variation) are better understood as context-driven constraints: replacing the chosen form with a near-synonym or a more “neutral” structure typically reduces precision, shifts emphasis, or weakens the intended affect. Consequently, lexical inimitability here is not framed as aesthetic superiority alone but as rule-governed optimality—the systematic matching of linguistic resources to contextual demands to produce layered meaning efficiently.The findings also suggest an interpretive payoff: context-sensitive lexical analysis can clarify why parallel themes across the Qur’an may employ different wording, and how stylistic shifts guide reader engagement and moral positioning. Limitations remain: the study is qualitative and example-driven, and future work could expand the dataset, test the proposed categories across broader corpora, and integrate computational tools to map patterns of contextual variation. Overall, the study concludes that lexical fit constitutes a central pillar of Qur’anic stylistics and provides structured evidence for lexical inimitability through demonstrable, context-motivated choice architecture. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30181.html In the domain of analyzing classical Persian texts, the utilization of modern rhetorical theories can pave the way for a re-examining perspective on the linguistic and semantic structures of the texts. The general corpus of the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi, with its complex structure and highly dynamic language, is among those works whose rhetorical analysis necessitates a dynamic and flexible theory; therefore, Kenneth Burke's theory of rhetorical address has been selected as the analytical framework of this study. The aim of the current research is to reveal how address is formulated in the ghazals of Shams based on the five components derived from Kenneth Burke's theory. The research method is qualitative and text-based. The findings indicate that in Shams's ghazals, the apostrophe (nida) serves as a rhetorical summons to invoke the presence of the addressee to all existence, God, the soul, and even the poet himself. The imperative, rather than implying coercion or obligation, functions as the invocative act of the speaker to call the addressee to another realm of existential experience. The questions posed in Shams's ghazals, instead of being answer-oriented, are contemplative, serving to invite wonder, summon to intuition, or awaken the addressee. Addressing the self in these ghazals acts as a construct in which the boundaries between inside and outside, self and other, 'I' and 'you,' dissolve, and performance is the passionate presence of meaning at the level of language—when language becomes, for the poet, a field of Sama and presence.Keywords: Performance, Self-Address, Divan-e Shams, Imperative Verb, Kenneth Burke, Apostrophe. IntroductionIn the realm of classical Persian text analysis, utilizing modern rhetorical theories can facilitate a rethinking of linguistic and semantic structures. The Divan of Shams Tabrizi by Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, with its complex structure and performative language, is a work whose rhetorical analysis requires a dynamic and flexible theoretical framework; thus, Kenneth Burke’s theory of the "Rhetorical Situation" has been selected as the analytical framework for this study. Burke, in his book A Rhetoric of Motives (1950), moves beyond viewing rhetoric merely as a tool for persuasion, defining it instead as a mechanism for social bonding and interaction that necessitates the interplay of speaker, audience, and scene. This perspective aligns with the address-centric nature of Shams's ghazals, where the poet addresses real humans, himself, abstract concepts, and the Divine. This study aims to reveal how address is formulated in the ghazals of Shams based on five components derived from Burke's theory: Invocation, Imperative, Question, Internal Address, and Performance. The primary problem addressed in this study is how rhetoric manifests in audience-oriented actions within Shams's ghazals, with the goal of investigating the capacity of the rhetorical situation theory to explain the linguistic and action-oriented structures that elevate language from a transmissive to a performative state. Materials and MethodsThe present study employs a qualitative research methodology, utilizing a descriptive-analytical approach to conduct an in-depth textual analysis. The primary corpus for this investigation consists of the Divan of Shams Tabrizi by Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, specifically selected for its sophisticated linguistic structures and its reliance on intense, audience-oriented dynamics. Given the text's complex nature—which invites the audience to participate in a verbal action rather than merely observe it—the research is grounded in the hypothesis that the ghazals are highly compatible with Kenneth Burke’s theory of the Rhetorical Situation.The analysis focuses not only on the formal presence of these elements but also on their functional role in shifting the text’s register. Specifically, the research examines how these layers operate to dismantle traditional boundaries between the speaker and the listener, treating the "audience" as a fluid construct that ranges from the Divine to the poet’s own self. By tracing the trajectory of these five components, the study aims to demonstrate how Rumi elevates language from a static, transmissive tool to a dynamic, performative force. This approach allows for a comprehensive investigation of the "logic of address" in the poetry, revealing how the poet utilizes linguistic capacity to transform the text into a "scene" where meaning is enacted and shared, effectively moving the reader from a passive receiver to an active participant in the semantic field. Research FindingsThe analysis of the ghazals based on the five specified components yielded the following results:Invocation: In Shams's ghazals, invocation functions as a rhetorical call to summon the presence of the entire cosmos, God, the soul, and even the poet himself. It acts not as compulsion or obligation, but as an evocative action by the speaker to invite the audience to another realm of existential experience.Imperative: The imperative verbs in the text serve to move the spirit and excite the soul, rather than to command or impose obligation. Rumi elevates language from the propositional level to the level of action.Questions: The rhetorical questions posed in the ghazals are not answer-oriented; instead, they are contemplative and designed to invite the audience to wonder, intuition, or awareness.Internal Address: Addressing the self functions as structures in which the boundaries of inside and outside, self and other ("me" and "you"), are obliterated. Shifts in pronouns and the transition from "me" to "you" reflect psychological, emotional, and existential layers.Performance: There are verses in the ghazals where words dance, scream, circle, and command. In this context, language transforms into a field of "Sama" (spiritual audition) and vigorous presence. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe results of the analysis demonstrate that rhetoric in Rumi's semantic system is not merely a tool for expression or persuasion; rather, it is a living, participatory, and multi-layered structure that invites the audience not only to receive a message but to be present in the field of meaning. In Shams's ghazals, every address is a linguistic event that rises from the depths of language and projects into the world of experience and intuition.Overall, the five components analyzed in this research reveal that the address in Rumi's ghazals possesses a fluid, multi-voiced, and absolutely rhetorical structure. It is neither purely internal nor externally projected but is continuously generative and unfolding. By leveraging linguistic, syntactic, rhetorical, emotional, and musical capacities, Rumi does not merely "address"; rather, he performs, lives, and transforms the address into a collective experience. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30190.html Epic literature, owing to its inherent nature, is deeply rooted in figurative language, particularly metaphor. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the metaphors employed in Shahnameh, Garshaspnameh, Bahmannameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh. The research method is descriptive-analytical, based on the study of epic texts, extraction, and categorization of metaphors, followed by their analysis based on conceptual domains and frequency of use. Each work, aligned with its subject matter and historical context, introduces specific linguistic innovations. Shahnameh, due to its vast influence and impact, is regarded as the “mother text” for other epic works, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, tendency towards composite metaphors, and fusion of epic and lyric elements, is the most creative work in this domain. Natural elements have the highest frequency of metaphorical use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and mythical elements. The research results indicate that the enduring value of epic works is not determined by the frequency of metaphor use, but by how language, particularly metaphor, is applied. This fundamental technique plays a crucial role in reflecting the national, cultural, and mythological identity of Persian epic literature. In conclusion, it can be stated that the evolution of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a “narrative and heroic function” towards an “aesthetic and lyrical function.” Keywords: Epic, Metaphor, Traditional Rhetoric, Persian Literature.  IntroductionAmong the various forms of epic literature, national epics possess greater social significance. Although the poet does not directly inject personal emotions into the epic narrative, they shape the reader's perspective through the use of rhetorical devices.This paper examines the function of figurative language, particularly explicit metaphor, in five prominent epic works, aiming to analyze the evolution of metaphor and its reflection in these texts. Existing studies in this area are largely quantitative, comparing epic works without an in-depth exploration of their individual characteristics. The goal of this research is to explore the quality of explicit metaphors in these works and the influence of cultural, social, political, and geographical contexts on the creation of metaphors in epic texts. The research seeks to answer questions regarding the use of metaphor in these epics, its evolution, and its connection with the worldview, geography, and historical conditions of the poets. This study adopts a comparative approach to analyze five epic works that have seldom been examined together, allowing for a comprehensive investigation of the evolution of explicit metaphor. Additionally, this research focuses on the function of metaphors and their relationship with the structure of the epic, avoiding purely quantitative or descriptive analysis. Materials and MethodsThe research is conducted using statistical, descriptive-analytical, and library-based methods. A quantitative analysis of metaphors across the five texts and a qualitative content analysis focused on traditional rhetoric and the established metaphorical structures were employed. The five epic works examined are Shahnameh, Bahmannameh, Garshaspnameh, Borzunameh, and Samnameh.To manage the data volume, 1,000 couplets are selected from each epic, based on the chronological order of the works. The study analyzes the use of various types of metaphors (simple explicit, embellished explicit, absolute explicit, and embellished simple metaphors) in these works. It should be noted that the chronological order of the works is not definitively established but is based on the strongest hypotheses, as clarified in the text of the paper. The 1,000 couplets are chosen from the section dealing with the birth of the heroes, except for the Bahmannameh, which begins with the reign of Bahman. Tools used for analysis include note-taking from the couplets containing various types of metaphors, determining the type of metaphor, analyzing them, plotting frequency graphs, and calculating percentages. The data were gathered through studying the original texts, critical sources, and relevant research. Research FindingsIn the analysis of explicit metaphors in five national epics of Iran, the Shahnameh utilizes the highest frequency of pure explicit metaphors, whereas the metaphorical embellishments (or enhanced metaphors) account for the smallest percentage. In the Garshaspnameh, metaphorical embellishments are the most prevalent, while other types of metaphors are used at an average level. In the Bahmannameh, explicit metaphorical embellishments are specifically employed to maintain the purity of the language. In the Boruznameh, the usage of both pure explicit metaphors and metaphorical embellishments is observed in equal measure. The Samnameh notably makes extensive use of compound metaphors and, with the greatest diversity in metaphorical forms, reveals the peak of euphuistic language.In these epics, metaphors are categorized into six main types: natural, aristocratic, divine, euphuistic, war-related, and pre-Islamic. The most frequent metaphors are natural, followed by human and euphuistic metaphors. Other types of metaphors are used approximately at equal levels. Based on these findings, the Shahnameh is recognized as the “mother text” for other epic works, and the Garshaspnameh exhibits more complexity than the Shahnameh. The Bahmannameh acts as a bridge between epic poetry and emotional euphuism, the Boruznameh largely imitates the Shahnameh, and the Samnameh demonstrates the greatest innovation in metaphor usage. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe findings of this research indicate that Persian epic works are both unified in their literary and cultural foundations and exhibit the creativity and innovation of each individual work. Shahnameh, due to its scope and influence, serves as the central pillar of this literary tradition, while Samnameh, with its unique metaphors, stands out as the most creative work. The combination of tradition and innovation in these works highlights the richness of Persian epic literature and the poets’ ability to create lasting images. The use of metaphor, simile, and exaggeration, particularly in sensitive scenes such as the description of hero unions, demonstrates the poet’s awareness of the ethical and aesthetic functions of metaphorical language. The study shows that metaphor is a fundamental component of epic literature, with nearly all the works, except Samnameh, employing similar frequencies of metaphor. Natural elements have the highest frequency of use, followed by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and pre-Islamic elements.The choice of these elements is not only influenced by other literary types but is primarily based on the need to create awe and maintain a connection with the general public. The similarities between the elements in the epics stem from the geographical and historical proximity of the poets, as well as the status of Shahnameh as the “mother text.” The analysis of the reflection of national identity shows that metaphors have played a crucial role in preserving ancient culture and distant myths. Samnameh, with its distinct geography and time, exhibits the greatest diversity in metaphors, blending heroic and lyrical metaphors. Overall, the development of metaphor in Persian national epic literature has shifted from a narrative and heroic function to an aesthetic and lyrical one. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30208.html One of the most widely used imaginative techniques, which plays a crucial role in shaping the figurative language of the Makhzan al-Asrar of Nizami Ganjavi, is simile. Given the great importance of this literary technique and the lack of independent research in this field, this study investigates the element of simile and its types in this work. The results of the study show that, in terms of types of similes, the most common types are baligh, mufassal, mu’akkad, and mujmal, respectively. Regarding the components of simile, all four types of tenor (mushabbah) and vehicle (mushabbah-un-bih), in sensory and intellectual, as well as structural patterns (simple, restricted, and compound) have textual evidence. Among these, “sensory-to-sensory” and “simple-to-simple” similes are the most frequent, while “intellectual-to-intellectual” and “compound-to-simple” are at the least common. Additionally, among the various markers of simile (adat-e tashbih), cho and chon play the most significant role in constructing similes in this work. The ground of comparison (wajh-e shabah) is also widely used and accompanied by poetic innovations. Keywords: Nizami Ganjavi, Makhzan al-Asrar, Simile (Tashbih), Rhetorical Devices, Figurative Language. IntroductionOne of the most eloquent rhetorical techniques for conveying diverse meanings is simile. As a stable element in the structure of many poetic forms, this figure of speech maintains a continuous presence in literary texts and thus occupies a prominent position among other rhetorical devices. In Makhzan al-Asrar, simile constitutes one of the most salient rhetorical figures, forming the basis of numerous poetic images. Nizami consistently employs this figure as an assistant for imaginative expression. As Zarrinkub observes: “Among the various types of figurative imagery, without which poetry rarely achieves imaginative power in its details, simile and metaphor assume a more pronounced role in his discourse” (Zarrinkub, 2004, p. 233). Therefore, given the significance of this figure of speech, its remarkable presence in Makhzan al-Asrar, and its crucial role in revealing Nizami’s distinctive and creative modes of poetic expression, the present study aims to examine the types and functions of simile in this work.The study of similes in Makhzan al-Asrar has been limited to a few works. These include Imaginary Figures in the Nizami’s Khamsa by Zanjani (1998), which examines a number of similes of Khamsa; Comparative and Analytic Research on Nizami’s and Jami’s Similes by Nabilou (2009); and The Comparison of Structure of Makhzan al-Asrar's and Matla al-Anwar's simile by Nabilu and Shiravi (2010). Although these studies address similes in Makhzan al-Asrar, they exhibit certain limitations that highlight the need for further research and a comprehensive re-examination of similes in this work. Materials and MethodsThis research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, based on data extracted from the original source. In the first stage, the verses were read individually, and all instances  of similes were identified and recorded. They were then organized into specific categories, and the exact frequency of each type was determined. In the second stage, the obtained statistical data were used to analyze the types, salient features, and functions of each of the four components of simile. Research FindingsIn Makhzan al-Asrar, all types of similes are evident throughout the work. The most frequently employed types are Baligh, Mufassal, Mu’akkad, and Mujmal, respectively (See: Table 1). Table 1. Frequency of Simile Types in Makhzan al-AsrarSimilarity TypeFrequencyPercentageNumber of VersesMufassal20316.23168Mujmal1108.7994Mu’akkad19615.67153Baligh74259.31505Total1251100 829 Regarding to tenor (mushabbah) and vehicle (mushabbah-un-bih), sensory elements are most frequently employed in constructing similes and objectifying abstract concepts. As Servatian (2000, p. 198) notes: “material and tangible objects of the universe and nature often are the main actors in the scenes of similes in the Makhzan al-Asrar. Intellectual elements are also utilized to emphasize tangible concepts and create novel similes, although this occurs less frequently.In terms of structural classification (simple, restricted, and compound), simple type is the most prevalent, while compound and restricted similes are comparatively rare. Among restricted similes, those limited to adjectives are the most common. Compound similes are generally infrequent in Makhzan-ul-Asrar.Markers of simile (adat-e tashbih), in this poem exhibit both variety and strategic usage. For instance, the omission of markers of similes in Mu’akkad similes serve to conceal them, reflecting Nizami’s artistic intent, whereas the explicit mention of similes’ markers in Mufassal and Mujmal categories primarily serve an explanatory function.The deliberate mention and omission of ground of comparison (wajh-e shabah) serve diverse artistic and functional purposes. Considering the high frequency of Baligh similes, it is evident that Nizami tends to omit similes, thereby enhancing the imaginative impact and literary function of his poetic imagery. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAmong the different types of similes in Makhzan al-Asrar, Baligh similes have a particularly prominent position, with 743 instances (59.39%). That is followed Mufassal similes, which account for 203 instances (16.34%), Mu’akkad similes with 195 cases (15.70%), and Mujmal similes with 110 instances (8.62%).Regarding the elements of similes, all four categories of sensory and intellectual components, as well as the nine types of structural classified as simple, restricted, and compound, are attested in this poem. Among these, ‘sensory-to-sensory’ similes (763 instances) and ‘simple-to-simple’ similes (731 instances) are the most frequent, whereas ‘intellectual-to-intellectual’ (59 instances) and ‘compound-to-simple’ similes (2 instances) occur the least.In terms of stylistic and various similes markers employed to construct similes, chu (109 instances) and chun (69 instances) appear the most, while markers such as be-rsam and eidun are used only once. Additionally, the omission of ground of comparison (wajh-e shabah) constitutes a primary technique employed by Nizami to introduce complexity and create a pause in the comprehension of the metaphorical relationship between the two components of simile. Grounds of comparison in this poem exhibit a wide range of qualities, including color, shape, movement, posture, dimension, and other characteristics. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30182.html Mohsen Pezeshkian is one of the prominent literary figures and prolific poets of the pre-revolutionary period who remains relatively unknown within the academic community and among students of Persian literature. The present study aims to examine and analyze various types of norm deviation in both the traditional and modern poems of Pezeshkian in order to identify their literariness. The application of Leech’s eightfold types of norm deviation, as well as rule expansion, can be observed in Pezeshkian’s poetry. Among these, semantic deviation is particularly prominent and is realized in diverse ways through the use of various literary devices such as simile and metaphor (both implicit and explicit), as well as personification. Pezeshkian skillfully plays with vocabulary and creates lexical deviations, and these coinages clearly reflect his linguistic competence and poetic creativity. He also employs temporal deviation through the use of archaic vocabulary and ancient syntactic structures. Stylistic deviation is widely evident in his sonnets as well as in his modern poems. By utilizing vocabulary from southern and Kazeruni local dialects, Mohsen Pezeshkian vividly depicts the southern atmosphere. Especially in his sonnets, these local and colloquial expressions appear frequently, to the extent that reading his poems can be challenging for non-native readers. The nature of the South and its palm trees are vividly reflected in his poetry. The thematic content of Pezeshkian’s poems includes social and political concerns, romantic themes, the sorrow of separation from the beloved, and, at times, mystical reflections. He also benefits from phonological and graphological deviations in his poetic language. The research methodology adopted in this study is descriptive–analytical. The study was conducted through close reading and examination of the selected works, systematic note-taking, and the use of written sources such as scholarly articles, theses, and books related to formalist criticism and norm deviation. Keywords: Formalism, Poetry, Norm Deviation, Geoffrey Leech, Mohsen Pezeshkian. IntroductionGeoffrey Neil Leach (16 January 1936 – 19 August 2014) was a distinguished English linguist and stylistician. Leach moved beyond traditional approaches in literary criticism by emphasizing the need for systematic and precise analytical tools for examining poetic language. He significantly contributed to the theory of salience and its application within stylistics. His book Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding not only represents what he describes as a “collection of essays on applied stylistics,” but also offers a detailed explanation of different types of linguistic norms. Understanding these norms is essential for analyzing and describing foregrounding at various linguistic levels. Leach categorizes deviations and proposes a structured framework for classifying different types of deviation and rule expansion.Mohsen Pezeshkian was born on February 27, 1947, in the Gonbad neighborhood of Kazerun, located in Fars Province. He completed his primary and secondary education in Kazerun and Bushehr by 1966. In 1969, he was admitted to the Department of Persian Language and Literature at the University of Tehran. Until recent years, Pezeshkian was known mainly within his hometown, primarily for a limited number of poems written in the Kazeruni dialect and a few in standard Persian. In addition to poetry, Pezeshkian collected stories, customs, and ancestral traditions of southern Iran. His works include Stories of the People of Kazerun, Stories of Kumaranj and Mamsani, and Traditions and Proverbs of Kazerun. Materials and MethodsThis research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach and relies on library resources as well as academic journal databases. The scope of the study is the collection of poems by Mohsen Pezeshkian. The research procedure involved first extracting all instances of phonetic and lexical deviation from the poet’s works. These cases were then analyzed using a descriptive–analytical method, grounded in structuralist theory and Geoffrey Leech’s eightfold model of deviation, with a focus on the phonetic and lexical layers of Pezeshkian’s lyrical poetry. Research FindingsParallelism, or rule expansion, is not considered a deviation from normative rules but rather the application of additional rules alongside existing norms; therefore, it is inherently distinct from deviation. In the analysis of Mohsen Pezeshkian’s poetry, most types of semantic deviation were identified and examined. Semantic deviation appears in various forms in Pezeshkian’s poems. In some cases, the poet deliberately arranges words in such a way that understanding the poem’s meaning requires specific background knowledge, and the syntactic structure itself contributes to semantic complexity.One notable example is animism. In the poem “Night of Blood” from the second collection, Pezeshkian repeatedly uses the expression “the bullet chirps,” which represents a clear instance of semantic deviation through animism. Other subcategories of semantic deviation, such as vegetalization, fluidization, and abstraction, were also identified and analyzed.In the domain of syntactic deviation, several phenomena were observed, including advancement and delay of sentence elements, inverted adjectival constructions, omission of sentence components, transposition of adverbs, and variation in verbal structures. Phonetic deviation was also evident through processes such as reduction, deletion, addition, lenition, and intensification, each supported by textual examples. Stylistic deviation was examined through selected poems, while other forms—such as lexical, graphological, temporal deviation, and archaism—were analyzed based on Geoffrey Leech’s theoretical framework. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsSemantic norm deviation in Pezeshkian’s poetry is realized through techniques such as abstraction, embodiment, animism, anthropomorphism, and vegetal imagery. Lexical norm deviation stands out as a defining feature of his poetic language, reflecting his creativity and innovation through unconventional word formations and profound semantic associations.Syntactic norm deviation manifests in various forms, including the transposition of sentence elements, omission of verbs or their replacement with verbal equivalents, inverted adjectival constructions, deletion of subjects, and displacement of adverbial elements. Phonetic norm deviation is achieved through transformation, intensification, reduction, deletion, addition, and lenition, which collectively enrich the musicality and tonal quality of the poems.Dialectal norm deviation, through the use of local vocabulary and syntactic patterns, distances the poetic language from the standard norm. Stylistic deviation, achieved by blending colloquial speech with formal written language, lends the poems an intimate, dynamic, and vivid quality. Temporal norm deviation, through the use of archaic, mythical, and historical vocabulary and structures, creates a meaningful dialogue between past and present.Finally, graphological deviation—through unconventional word arrangement, spacing, and visual layout—enhances the aesthetic dimension of Pezeshkian’s poetry and contributes to the effective transmission of poetic meaning by engaging the reader visually as well as linguistically. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30516.html Metaphor, from the perspective of Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory, is not a literary device but a fundamental mechanism in human cognition and understanding of the world. Persian poetry represents one of the richest contexts for the emergence of this conceptual system, where complex ideas such as love, knowledge, and existence are represented through metaphors. Contemporary industrial design has moved beyond mere functionalism toward meaningful, emotional, and cultural design, recreating aesthetic and conceptual experiences through form, texture, and user interaction. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical method and an interdisciplinary approach, seeks to answer how conceptual metaphors of Persian poetry can serve as inspirational patterns for creating meaning in industrial design. The findings demonstrate that conceptual metaphors of Persian poetry, beyond their literary function, can be transformed into conceptual models in industrial design and can play a role in shaping form, user experience, and cultural identity of products. Accordingly, re-reading the metaphorical system of Persian poetry can provide a theoretical basis for designing identity-oriented, meaningful, and culture-centered products, creating an effective link between literature, culture, and industrial design. Keywords: Conceptual Metaphor, Persian Poetry, Industrial Design, Meaning, Cultural Design. IntroductionThe theory of conceptual metaphor, introduced by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980), posits that metaphor is not merely a linguistic phenomenon but a cognitive mechanism through which humans understand abstract concepts by mapping them onto concrete, sensory experiences (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 3). In this framework, a conceptual metaphor is defined as "a systematic mapping between elements of a concept domain based on human objective experience (source domain) onto another domain that is usually more abstract (target domain)" (Lakoff, 1993, p. 43). Persian poetry, particularly in its classical periods, serves not only as a realm for poetic imagination but also as a medium for cultural and intellectual representation. Within this context, metaphor operates beyond a rhetorical device or verbal ornamentation, functioning as a cognitive and cultural mechanism that enables abstract concepts to be conveyed to the audience through tangible experiences. In the field of industrial design, particularly over the past two decades, approaches emphasizing meaning, experience, and emotion have emerged. Theories such as emotional design (Norman, 2004), meaningful design (Krippendorff, 2006), and cultural design (Margolin, 1995) maintain that a product is not merely a functional object but a carrier of human signs, values, and emotions. Despite this conceptual overlap, few Persian-language studies have addressed the link between the metaphorical system of Persian poetry and industrial design. Literary research has often remained limited to rhetorical and aesthetic analysis of poetic language, while industrial design studies have mostly examined metaphor from the perspective of perceptual psychology and product design (Hekkert & Cila, 2015). The research problem is formulated as an inquiry into how the conceptual metaphor system of Persian poetry can serve as an inspirational model for creating meaning and form in industrial design. This study hypothesizes that Persian poetic metaphors possess systematic structural features that can be translated into design elements, including form, material, user experience, and cultural meaning. Materials and Methods This study employs a descriptive-analytical method with an interdisciplinary approach, combining literary analysis and industrial design. The research consists of three main stages. First, literary data collection: key metaphors were extracted from classical Persian poetry, including works by Hafez, Rumi, Saadi, and Sohrab Sepehri. Second, metaphorical system analysis: using Lakoff and Johnson's (1980) conceptual metaphor theory, each extracted metaphor was analyzed to identify its source domain (concrete, sensory experience) and target domain (abstract concept). Third, integration with industrial design principles: a comparative analytical method was used to map conceptual metaphors onto design elements. Each metaphor was analyzed for its potential to be translated into form, material, user experience, and cultural meaning in industrial products.Metaphors were categorized into five conceptual groups: natural/environmental, movement/dynamics, reflective/epistemic, emotional/psychological, and cultural/symbolic. For each category, conceptual design proposals were developed demonstrating how the metaphor could inform product aesthetics, function, and user interaction. This framework provides a systematic approach to transferring literary-cultural knowledge into industrial design practice. Research FindingsThe analysis revealed that Persian poetry's conceptual metaphors possess significant potential for translation into industrial design across five categories. Natural and environmental metaphors, such as "love is light" and "love is fire" (Hafez), can be expressed through transparent materials, gradual illumination, and forms suggesting emergence and radiance. The metaphor "truth is water" (Rumi) translates into dynamic, flowing forms and interactive products that require user participation. Movement and dynamics metaphors, including "the path of continuous effort" (Hafez) and "seeing differently" (Sepehri), inform designs with guiding lines, progressive disclosure, and adaptable configurations that allow multiple perspectives. Reflective and epistemic metaphors, such as "become a mirror" (Saeb) and "shadow as indirect presence" (Hafez), inspire reflective surfaces and products that respond to user presence, creating feedback loops and personal interaction. Cultural and symbolic metaphors, including "flower and wine as cultural perfection" (Hafez) and "evolution from stone to human" (Rumi), support designs that convey social status, educational progression, and cultural identity through organic forms, quality materials, and multi-stage experiences. Emotional and psychological metaphors, such as "the heart as a path to love" (Neshat Esfahani) and "love as endless search" (Rumi), enable gradual, discovery-based interactions and platforms that encourage sustained engagement. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that Persian poetic metaphors are not merely literary ornaments but actionable cognitive structures for creating meaningful, culturally-grounded industrial design. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that Persian poetry's conceptual metaphors constitute a rich, systematic resource for industrial design, extending far beyond decorative or superficial inspiration. The findings confirm the central hypothesis: metaphors structuring Persian poetic thought can be systematically mapped onto design elements—form, material, user experience, and cultural meaning. The five-category framework provides designers with a practical taxonomy for translating abstract literary concepts into tangible product attributes. This integration offers several significant contributions. First, it validates cognitive linguistics theories (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Kövecses, 2010) in a novel applied context, showing that conceptual metaphors operate across verbal and material domains. Second, it addresses the interdisciplinary gap identified in the literature review, where literary studies and design research have remained largely separate (Hekkert & Cila, 2015). Third, it provides a culturally-grounded alternative to universalist design approaches, enabling products that reflect Iranian cultural identity while maintaining contemporary functionality. However, this study has limitations.The design proposals remain conceptual and require empirical testing through user studies and prototype evaluations. Future research should develop measurable criteria for assessing how effectively metaphorical translations communicate intended meanings to diverse users. Additionally, expanding the corpus to include contemporary Persian poetry and other Iranian art forms could enrich the framework. In conclusion, re-reading Persian poetry's metaphorical system offers a theoretical and practical foundation for meaningful, identity-oriented design, transforming literary heritage into a living resource for innovation in industrial design. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30278.html None of Hafez’s terms has sparked as much discourse as the term Rend (Libertine). Yet, at the same time, no concept has been considered so clear and in no need of research by scholars of Hafez’s language and thought. Passing judgment in this regard seems quite difficult, because even some well‑known and meticulous researchers have taken the same path and, at best, relied solely on their own knowledge and understanding, deeming it unnecessary to consult Persian dictionaries. A deep and profound examination of Hafez’s poetry reveals that the concept of Rend rarely appears alone. In Hafez Shirazi’s view, the Rend is always accompanied by love (āsheqī), intoxication (mastī), and joyousness (ṭarabnākī). The concepts of “market libertine” (rend‑e bāzārī) and “notorious, shameless libertine” (rend‑e lā‑ubālī)—referring to the most vile and base creatures, i.e., one who is bound by no creed, principle, or morality—appear only twice in Hafez’s poetry, and curiously, both times Hafez ascribes them to himself. What follows is a research effort conducted through a descriptive‑analytical method and a library‑based study of resources. By opening the precious and weighty Divan of Hafez, this study examines the positive and negative attributes of the Rend from his perspective, and investigates self‑ascription and other‑ascription of these positive and negative traits to this heart‑burning, world‑burning Rend. The results of the research indicate that Hafez ascribes the Rend with positive traits to both himself and others, while attributing the Rend with negative traits only to himself. This reflects the humility and modesty of this profound and refined poet and reveals Hafez as a person of good character, ethical integrity, and liberality. Keywords: Hafez, Rend and Rendī, Self‑ascription and Other‑ascription, Ethical Relativity. IntroductionKhwāja Shams al‑Dīn Muḥammad Ḥāfiẓ (727‑792 AH) is the exquisite poet and greatest ghazal writer of Iran, and one of the precious and eminent geniuses of the human world. The word Rend is one of the most important, profound, and controversial terms present in his poetry. The Rend of Ḥāfiẓ carries various and sometimes contradictory characteristics and attributes such as “shameless”, “wine‑drinker”, “lover”, “notorious”, “saint”, “leader”, etc. (Morādī Fīrūz & Muḥammadī, 2024, p. 156). In Ḥāfiẓ’s view, the Rend is a personality embodying a multi‑dimensional, mysterious, and enigmatic paradox. In his poems and ghazals, Ḥāfiẓ creates a personality for the Rend that causes a semantic transformation and a deep, fundamental shift in its meaning within Sufi thought and culture. Through this rupture, the personality of the Rend—which before that, in culture, literature, and among popular sayings, was introduced as a social group opposing social norms with many negative attributes—presents to the audience a model of a complete, transcendent, and refined human being.Thus, in the Divan of this wise sage, the path of Rendī (libertinism) manifests through purity of heart, pleasure‑seeking, fearlessness and courage, steadfastness against hypocritical sheikhs, liberality, refinement, high aspiration, patience and forbearance, humility, fidelity to pledge and covenant, considering the world ephemeral, truth‑seeking, beauty‑worship, and enlightenment. The purpose of the present research is to examine the positive and negative attributes of the Rend from Ḥāfiẓ’s perspective, and to investigate self‑ascription and other‑ascription of these positive and negative traits to this heart‑burning, world‑burning Rend. Materials and MethodsThe present research has been conducted through a descriptive‑analytical method and a library‑based study (books, articles, etc.). Research FindingsThe combination of the two concepts of Rend and hypocrisy (riyā) in the form of “hypocritical libertine” (rend‑e riyāʾī) has no precedent in the poetry of others except in Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry—and even then, only once. If Ḥāfiẓ speaks of Rendī, in the real world too, he was a Rend—but not a market libertine nor a hypocritical libertine; rather, a pious libertine.A deep and profound examination of Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry reveals that the concept of Rend rarely appears alone. In Ḥāfiẓ Shirazi’s view, the Rend is always accompanied by love, intoxication, and joyousness. The concepts of market libertine and notorious, shameless libertine—referring to the most vile and base creatures, i.e., one who is bound by no creed, principle, or morality—appear only twice in Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry, and curiously, both times he ascribes them to himself.Of course, it should be noted that when Ḥāfiẓ attributes the basest traits of the Rend to himself, one must pay attention that this ascription is not in opposition and comparison to ordinary people, but rather in opposition to his own beloved, i.e., the sultan of his heart and soul, who is at once beloved, praised, and worshipped.In contrast to the negative and vile attributes of the Rend in Ḥāfiẓ’s view—which, as understood from his poems, he attributes only to himself—the Rend with positive attributes is ascribed by him both to himself and to others, reflecting the humility and modesty of this refined and profound poet and mirroring his intellectual orientation and worldview, as well as his poetic manner and conduct. Among these positive meanings and attributes are: awareness of secrets, refinement, self‑sufficiency and needlessness, endurance of affliction, humility, cleverness, indifference to profit and loss, saintliness, liberality and humanity, being a lover, intoxicated, sinner, and also opposed to expediency. Discussion of Results and ConclusionKhwāja Shams al‑Dīn Muḥammad Ḥāfiẓ is a source of pride and honor in the world of Persian poetry and literature and an outstanding poet‑orator of all historical periods. In his precious and weighty Divan, none of his terms has sparked as much discourse as the term Rend. In his poems and ghazals, Ḥāfiẓ creates a personality for the Rend that causes a semantic transformation and a deep, fundamental shift in its meaning within Sufi thought and culture.A deep and profound examination of Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry reveals that the concept of Rend rarely appears alone. In Ḥāfiẓ Shirazi’s view, the Rend is always accompanied by love, intoxication, and joyousness. The concepts of market libertine and notorious, shameless libertine—referring to the most vile and base creatures, i.e., one who is bound by no creed, principle, or morality—appear only twice in Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry, and curiously, both times he ascribes them to himself.Of course, it should be noted that when Ḥāfiẓ attributes the basest traits of the Rend to himself, one must pay attention that this ascription is not in opposition and comparison to ordinary people, but rather in opposition to his own beloved, i.e., the sultan of his heart and soul, who is at once beloved, praised, and worshipped.In contrast to the negative and vile attributes of the Rend, Ḥāfiẓ ascribes the Rend with positive attributes both to himself and to others, reflecting the humility and modesty of this refined and benevolent poet and revealing Ḥāfiẓ as a person of good character, ethical integrity, and liberality. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30341.html Mikhail Bakhtin is among the most influential thinkers in the fields of literary criticism and the philosophy of language in the twentieth century, who proposed the "logic of dialogue" as the core of his thought. This theory, by emphasizing polyphony, intertextuality, and the dialogic nature of language, has transformed our understanding of the phenomenon of dialogue and the formation of meaning. The present research, employing a descriptive-analytical method and relying on library sources, aims to critically examine the theoretical foundations of the logic of dialogue and its implications in the field of literary criticism. The findings of the research indicate that although this theory is rich and revolutionary philosophically and aesthetically, it faces fundamental challenges such as ambiguity in the definition of dialogue and neglect of the role of power relations in the realm of discourse. Furthermore, this theory is deficient in explaining the role of the author and the ethical responsibility of the work, and shows obvious methodological limitations when applied to non-novel texts and specific cultural-historical contexts. On the other hand, due to the plurality of truths, dialogue alone cannot capture the entire truth. Keywords: Literary Criticism and Theory, Bakhtin, Logic of Dialogue, Polyphony.  IntroductionThe concept of the "logic of dialogue" (dialogism) stands as the central pillar in the theoretical, linguistic, literary, and sociological works of Mikhail Bakhtin. While Bakhtin did not invent dialogue, he uniquely systematized it as a fundamental epistemological and aesthetic principle. This study aims to analyze the genesis, evolution, and philosophical underpinnings of Bakhtin’s dialogism, examining its distinctions from monologism and its roots in Kantian philosophy.The closest philosophical antecedents of the logic of dialogue should be sought in the efforts of the Neo-Kantians, who aimed to bridge the gap between matter (body) and spirit. Following Hegel’s death, this gap became significantly more pronounced, stemming from the contradiction and incompatibility between science and philosophy. Consequently, the logic of dialogue is part of that European intellectual inclination and desire to establish a correspondence between epistemology and the new forms of subjectivity, thought, and revolutionary paradigms emerging in the natural sciences of the 19th century. This endeavor sought to encompass the theory of knowledge in an era dominated by the theories of physical relativity and cosmology, which had raised numerous questions about the existence and life of thought and mind.Using a descriptive-analytical method, this research traces the historical context of dialogism, noting that while contemporaries like Martin Buber and early Russian Formalists (e.g., Vinogradov) explored dialogue, Bakhtin elevated it to a core theoretical framework. The study investigates Bakhtin’s assertion that meaning is not inherent in isolated words but emerges through social interaction and the interplay of multiple voices. It highlights Bakhtin’s critique of monologism, which assumes a single, authoritative consciousness, in favor of polyphony, where diverse, equal voices interact without hierarchy.Furthermore, the paper explores the philosophical foundations of dialogism, linking it to Kant’s epistemology and Neo-Kantian efforts to bridge the gap between subject and object. Unlike Kant, who posited an unbridgeable gap between mind and world, Bakhtin argued that consciousness itself is constituted through "otherness". Meaning is generated relationally; words are "second-hand," carrying the traces of previous users, and require dialogue to acquire significance. This perspective rejects the notion of an isolated, self-sufficient ego, suggesting that individuality is recognized only through the reflection in others. Materials and MethodsThis research has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, relying on library sources. The primary materials consist of Bakhtin’s own works, such as Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, as well as critical secondary sources and scholarly interpretations of his ideas by other theorists and commentators. The methodology involves a critical exploration and analysis of the core concepts of dialogic logic, such as polyphony and intertextuality, to identify its strengths and inherent theoretical limitations. Research FindingsThe findings of this critical investigation reveal several fundamental challenges in Bakhtin's theory of dialogic logic. Key issues identified include: 1) A conceptual ambiguity in the very definition of "dialogue", which Bakhtin uses across various levels from everyday conversation to an ontological philosophical principle, leading to methodological confusion; 2) A significant neglect of the role of power relations and social inequality in discourse, presenting an idealized space for dialogue that overlooks how institutional and material structures can suppress or co-opt voices; 3) A deliberate downplaying of the author's role and their ethical responsibility for the work's content, which can lead to ethical ambiguity, especially when discriminatory discourses are presented within a polyphonic framework; 4) A lack of sufficient attention to specific historical-cultural contexts, as the theory, largely shaped by 19th-century Russian conditions, lacks the tools to analyze how different cultural frameworks shape discourse; and 5) Difficulties in applying the theory to non-novelistic genres like lyric poetry, which Bakhtin himself considered inherently monologic. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe discussion confirms that Bakhtin’s theory of dialogic logic, by centering "dialogue" as the foundation of speech and meaning formation, offers a dynamic and fluid understanding of meaning production, standing in opposition to monologic and authoritarian discourse models. However, a critical analysis exposes a complex set of weaknesses, internal tensions, and methodological limitations that challenge its universal and uncritical application. The most fundamental flaws are the conceptual ambiguity of "dialogue," the neglect of power dynamics, the diminished role of the author and ethical responsibility, insufficient consideration of specific historical-cultural contexts, and challenges in applying the theory to non-novelistic texts.Philosophically, the theory grapples with a paradox: by denying any absolute truth and emphasizing the fluidity of meaning, it opens the door to radical relativism, while Bakhtin himself implicitly upholds the value of equal voices—a principle not firmly justified within his own theoretical framework. This study concludes that, despite its revolutionary insights, Bakhtin’s theory alone does not constitute a complete or sufficient framework for literary criticism and discourse analysis. Its true analytical power flourishes when integrated with complementary approaches, such as Foucauldian power theory, New Historicism, postcolonial studies, and psychoanalytic or sociological analyses, allowing for a more comprehensive and critical explanation of the objective, material, historical, and ethical complexities involved in the production and reception of meaning in the real world. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30348.html In rhetorical studies, synesthesia is a literary device in which two or more of the five senses are blended, or in which a sensory perception is combined with an abstract concept. Synesthesia is examined within both rhetorical and linguistic-grammatical contexts, with the aim of creating semantic resonance and enhancing the expressive impact and aesthetic quality of the discourse. In the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi), the pursuit of novel meanings through synesthesia is regarded as a significant literary characteristic. This article, which aims to identify and interpret the characteristics of the Indian Style ghazal, posits that synesthesia is an influential factor in the poetic imagery of Najib Kashani’s ghazals. Using a descriptive-analytical approach, this study seeks to answer the question: How does synesthesia, as a poetic tool, contribute to the richness of imagery and internal musicality in Najib’s ghazals? For this purpose, synesthesia was examined in three categories: rhetorical, grammatical, and sensory types in Najib Kashani’s ghazals. The findings indicate that Najib Kashani extensively and boldly employed the device of synesthesia to create novel and complex themes and to demonstrate the power of his imagination. The frequent and courageous use of this device, along with its interrelation with other rhetorical figures, is considered one of the primary factors in shaping the complex, imaginative, and unconventional style of poetry in this period. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30670.html In recent decades, scholarship on resistance literature has expanded significantly, and numerous researchers have critically examined this field in order to clarify its nature and various dimensions. However, despite the abundance of studies and the establishment of a theoretical framework in this area, a systematic review of scholarly sources indicates that ambiguities still remain regarding its definition, conceptual boundaries, and its relationship to other literary genres and theoretical discourses. In a previous study, drawing on the paradigm criticism approach, a new model entitled the "literature of struggle" was proposed to redefine resistance literature; this model seeks to identify and resolve the existing ambiguities. Based on that paradigmatic redefinition, the present article applies the new model to the analysis of the internal branches of resistance literature. In general, this study seeks, through a descriptive-analytical method, to answer the question: "What are the relationships among the various branches of resistance literature?" Its significance lies in the fact that, by analyzing the relationships and principal branches within the paradigmatic model and by examining a network of overlapping relations, the boundaries of resistance literature can be more clearly elucidated. According to the findings, within this model, the literature of struggle is divided into several subgenres; these subgenres are conceptually distinct from one another, yet at the paradigmatic level they occupy a shared field. Within this framework, the relationship between the literature of struggle, on the one hand, and resistance literature and protest literature, on the other, is one of absolute generality and specificity, while the relationship between resistance literature and protest literature is one of partial overlap. By redrawing these relationships and branches, this model offers a more comprehensive and dynamic picture of resistance literature and expands its capacity for future studies. Keywords: Resistance Literature, Protest Literature, Paradigmatic Model, Literature of Struggle.  IntroductionThe understanding of any phenomenon or subject depends, to a large extent, on its precise definition—that is, a definition capable of revealing its various dimensions. Over the years, different scholars have proposed definitions of resistance literature, resulting in the formation of a relatively distinct theoretical or paradigmatic framework. In general, a paradigm refers to the overarching pattern of thought, theories, methods, and values on the basis of which the scholarly community operates during a given period in the history of research. The paradigm established in this field regards resistance literature as a socio-political, active, and committed literature concerned with confronting oppression, repression, and despotism. Yet despite the presentation of various viewpoints and the existence of such a paradigm, serious ambiguities and differences of opinion still persist in literary studies regarding the nature of resistance literature and various issues within this field, including the different types of resistance literature.In light of this situation, the need is felt for a comprehensive and exclusive model—one capable, while identifying the crises within the field, of determining the position of resistance literature and its related branches, and thereby providing a precise definition of each domain within resistance literature. The "literature of struggle model" is a model derived from a paradigmatic critique of the existing definitions and analyses. In other words, the persistence of challenges and the ongoing efforts to resolve ambiguities in the field of resistance literature highlighted the necessity of a new approach, and the presentation of the "literature of struggle" model constitutes a response to this need.The present study, however, seeks to explain the interrelations among the various branches of resistance literature on the basis of a new paradigmatic model entitled the "literature of struggle model"; in this respect, it is distinct from other studies in this field. On the basis of this paradigmatic model, the present study seeks to answer the following two research questions:What are the relationships among the various branches of resistance literature?What is protest literature, and what branches does it include? Materials and MethodsThe present study employs a descriptive-analytical method. Its significance lies in the fact that, through analyzing the relationships and principal branches within the paradigmatic model and examining a network of overlapping relations, it redefines the boundaries of resistance literature and paves the way for subsequent research on the study of concrete instances and the practical evaluation of these relationships. Research FindingsIn general, within the field of resistance literature, there are several principal groups of definitions: "foundational" definitions, "branch-oriented" definitions, "time-oriented" definitions, "criterion-oriented" definitions, and "action-oriented" definitions. Taken together, these definitions present a theoretical framework for resistance literature. However, within this framework, the relationship of resistance literature to war literature, protest literature, and similar fields is marked by various ambiguities. For example, resistance literature is at times regarded as the overarching category of protest literature, at times as a subcategory of it, and at other times as identical or synonymous with it. These ambiguities themselves underscore the necessity of critiquing the existing paradigm so that, through such critique and through identifying the crises that have complicated the research trajectory of resistance literature, a new model may be proposed for defining the various domains within this field.Within this framework, the literature of struggle, which addresses the very principle of confrontation between two opposing sides, is situated at the apex of a hierarchical structure, one branch of which is resistance literature. This gives rise to a new model. According to this model:Literature of StruggleLiterature of struggle is literature centered on the principle of confrontation and containing within itself an element of awakening. This literary domain comprises two main divisions: "inner literature of struggle" and "outer literature of struggle."Resistance LiteratureResistance literature is a form of literature—sometimes transhistorical and transregional—situated under the broader category of literature of struggle. It is socio-political in foundation, committed, and affectively stimulating (i.e., possessing an element of motivation). Because certain conditions are aggressive or imposed, this literature seeks to preserve values, achievements, or beliefs, defend them, and advance its aims by means of specific components. The most important components of resistance literature are as follows: the representation of the identity of uprising and struggle and emphasis on values; the depiction of the enemy's crimes; the recounting of popular bravery and perseverance; the commemoration of fighters and innocent victims along the path of the event; direct or indirect invitation of the audience to steadfastness and patience and condemnation of passivity; instilling hope regarding the fruition of efforts; the belittling and denunciation of the enemy; and instruction and awareness-raising.Subbranches or Types of Resistance LiteratureWithin the framework of the proposed paradigm, resistance literature, as a branch of literature of struggle, is divided into the following categories. It should be noted that in a previous study, explanations were offered regarding war literature and revolutionary literature within this model; in the present section, in order to complete the discussion, their definitions are also provided.War or Defense LiteratureWar or defense literature is a form of literature situated under resistance literature, committed and awakening in relation to the issue of war, which motivates its audience to rise against the enemy or to preserve acquired values by foregrounding the components of resistance. Since the best-known works on war have emerged from colonial powers such as the United States and Britain, it is preferable, in reference to the literature of Iran's eight-year war or twelve-day war, to use the terms "Sacred Defense Literature" or "Imposed War Literature" so as to distinguish it from war poetry in the conventional sense of world literature.Revolutionary LiteratureRevolutionary literature is a form of literature situated under resistance literature, committed and awakening in relation to the issue of revolution, which—at the level of deep structure or surface structure—motivates its audience to rise against political disorder or to preserve acquired values by foregrounding the components of resistance. This branch of literature is divided into three categories: pre-revolutionary literature, during-the-revolution literature, and post-revolutionary literature.Discursive Literature (Humanistic or Ideological Discourse Literature)In this type of literature, the poet or writer moves beyond a narrowly political outlook confined to borders and cultures and approaches war, revolution (against oppression and despotism), oppression, and tyranny through a humanistic vision, itself also informed by the author's particular ideology. Such literature struggles against opposing ideologies belonging to any time or place and rises in defense of its own position—namely, its anti-oppression stance—independent of national or ethnic prejudice. This form of resistance literature generally does not defend its own beliefs directly; rather, by defending those who belong to the same struggle-oriented camp as the creator of the work, it displays its particular ideology. Thus, discursive resistance literature constitutes the point of connection among all free human beings who oppose oppression, bloodshed, and aggression; this type of literature is even transhistorical and transtemporal.Hidden Resistance LiteratureThis type of literature, which generally emerges in the non-crisis conditions following war and revolution or during periods of repression—more broadly, under relatively calm positive or negative circumstances—does not openly proclaim opposition to dominant political policies and has neither the intention nor the capacity for revolution, rebellion, or the like, nor hope for a total transformation of conditions. Rather, because of a sense of danger regarding a certain matter, it engages in awakening; or it defends an idea or value that has come under attack, and in any case rises, at the level of meaning, in opposition to the other side. In addition to political resistance, such literature may also involve cultural or religious resistance, since culture and religion are inseparable elements of every society and belong to the sphere of social life; their destruction or deterioration is at times dependent upon the policies pursued by those in power.Protest Literature and Its BranchesIn this paradigmatic arrangement, protest literature is a part of literature of struggle that possesses a social or socio-political dimension and emerges in criticism of falsehoods and wrongs. Protest may manifest itself in different forms such as patriotism, libertarianism, and the pursuit of justice. Pure protest literature (struggle-oriented protest literature) differs from revolutionary protest literature (resistance-oriented protest literature).In light of the above classifications and within the framework of this paradigmatic approach, another classification of literature of struggle may also be proposed: episodic literature and ongoing literature. Discussion of Results and ConclusionThe relationships among the various branches of the literature of struggle may be understood as a composite relationship involving both discursive overlap and functional distinction. The relationship of the literature of struggle to protest literature and resistance literature:If the literature of struggle is regarded as the encompassing ground that includes both resistance literature and protest literature, the relationship among these categories may be described as one of absolute generality and specificity. The relationship between resistance literature and protest literature:Within this discursive field, the relationship between resistance literature and protest literature is one of partial overlap. The relationship between revolutionary literature and protest literature:According to the proposed framework, the relationship between these two types of literature is, in general, one of partial overlap. The relationship between war literature and protest literature:With regard to war literature—particularly in cases where the war is imposed—there is a form of protest embedded within the work, for instance, protest against the enemy's crimes. However, since this protest appears only in some works of war literature, the relationship between the two should be considered one of partial overlap.Moreover, if the subject of a work is war but the components of resistance are absent from it, the work is equivalent to a war poem and stands in a relationship of mutual exclusion to resistance literature. The relationship of resistance literature and the literature of struggle to the literature of lamentation and regret:Within the paradigmatic structure under discussion, the literature of lamentation, regret, and the like generally does not fall under the category of the literature of struggle. In other words, it stands in a relationship of mutual exclusion to both the literature of struggle and resistance literature.By clarifying the relationship of each branch to the others, a more precise image of each category—especially resistance literature—can be formed. Such an image is also helpful in analyzing broader interrelations. Future studies will seek to address these relationships in greater detail and with greater scholarly precision.Given the proposed classification of literary types, which divides works according to their purpose and mode of function into two main categories—autonomous literature and committed literature—the literature of struggle may generally be regarded as one of the branches of committed literature. Thus, the conclusion of the present article is a movement toward relational analysis in resistance literature studies; a direction that can make the path of future research clearer. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30269.html During the Qajar era, literary and compositional proficiency guided the educated elite toward the royal court. In this setting, while some secretaries confined themselves to administrative tasks, others—driven by ambition—transformed prose into a powerful instrument for climbing the ladder of power. Consequently, prose evolved beyond its purely literary form into political prose. Employing a descriptive‑analytical and documentary methodology, this study examines the life and works of Mirza Mohammad‑Taqi Ali‑Abadi, a figure whose personality and prose have received scant scholarly attention. It argues that Ali‑Abadi used his writing as a vehicle for advancing from an ordinary secretary to the influential office of Monshi‑ol‑Mamalek (chief secretary of state). However, his misjudged political analyses—such as his opposition to Mohammad Shah—led to his dismissal and failure in succession rivalries. Ultimately, Ali‑Abadi epitomizes a Qajar elite whose political prose propelled him to the center of power, yet whose flawed political calculus prevented him from sustaining that position. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30260.html In the history of Persian literature, mystical poetry marks a turning point in the evolution of rhetorical functions. This research, using a descriptive-analytical method and drawing upon the works of Sanai, Attar, Rumi, and Hafez, addresses how literary devices transformed from tools for aesthetic embellishment into a language for expressing profound spiritual experiences. This metamorphosis was not a stylistic choice, but a necessity born from the “crisis of language” and its inadequacy in describing mystical truth. The findings show that, faced with the inability of everyday language to describe the infinite, the mystic is forced to break its structures and reinvent the function of literary devices. In this process, metaphor is used to grant existence to abstract concepts, paradox to express a trans-rational logic and the unity of opposites, and hyperbole to allude to the boundless. Similarly, paronomasia and repetition reflect “unity in multiplicity”, personification expresses the “unity of being” (wahdat al-wujud), poetic etiology justifies the love-centric “best of all possible worlds”, and synesthesia becomes a tool for lifting the veil between the senses. The study concludes that in mystical poetry, rhetoric is transformed from “ornament” to “epistemology” and from formalism to meaning-creation, as literary devices become instruments for constructing and conveying the poet’s inner world. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30672.html Throughout the history of genre theory, two major approaches have dominated the field: monistic and pluralistic. Neither, however, has succeeded in providing a comprehensive and practical framework for the classification of literary genres. Consequently, genre theory remains largely under the influence of the simplicity of Aristotle's single-dimensional model. To overcome this limitation, a multi-dimensional theory of genre is required. Employing an analytical approach, the present study proposes such a theory. It argues that literary genres are neither confined to a limited number of fixed categories nor infinitely numerous. Rather, every literary work constitutes a unique configuration woven from a finite yet diverse range of verbal genres and subgenres. Identifying these genres requires recognizing the genre dimensions, each of which contributes a distinct component to the overall genre profile of a work. Ultimately, the study identifies twenty-three genre dimensions, together with their corresponding kinds and types, as a preliminary framework for the classification of verbal and literary genres. These dimensions are divided into two major categories: structural and contextual. The structural dimensions include language, internal poetics, external poetics, internal style, external style, writing style, function, ethical level, subject matter, theme, length, organization, method, and discourse. The contextual dimensions comprise the author's gender, the author's profession, the authenticity of the work, the mode of presentation, the place of presentation, the period of presentation, the audience's level of knowledge, the audience's age group, and the institutional context of use.   Keywords: Genre Theory, Literary Genre Classification, Single-dimensional Genre Theory, Multi-dimensional Genre Theory, Typology.   Introduction The basis for the classification of literary genres has long been the central concern of genre theory. Since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, numerous attempts have been made to resolve this issue. Nevertheless, genre theory continues to be dominated by Aristotle's Poetics. The reasons for this enduring dominance deserve careful examination; however, one significant factor appears to be the simplicity of Aristotle's model. It is sufficient to note that Aristotle classified literary genres primarily according to their function, thereby identifying the three principal literary genres: epic, tragedy, and comedy. If Aristotle's model is regarded as a single-dimensional theory of genre, developments from the Classical period to the beginning of the modern era gradually expanded the number of recognized literary genres, thereby opening a path beyond the limitations of this theory. During the modern period, Romantic theorists further attempted to identify multiple distinct genre dimensions. At times, they even regarded genre as inherently indeterminate, considering each literary work to possess a unique genre of its own. Although these perspectives broadened the theoretical horizon, none resulted in a comprehensive and practical framework for literary genre classification. The present article seeks to address this deficiency by elaborating the theoretical foundations of a multi-dimensional theory of genre.   Materials and Methods The present study employs an analytical research method based on qualitative content analysis. Accordingly, after reviewing previous approaches to the foundations of literary genre classification and outlining the principles and components of the proposed multi-dimensional theory of genre, the study identifies genre dimensions together with verbal and literary kinds and types through an inductive approach. These categories serve as the analytical framework for classifying literary genres and provide a practical model for the typological analysis of literary works. To this end, two fundamental principles guide the proposed theory: Specification, namely, taking into account all verbal and literary genres; and Generalization, namely, considering all subcategories within each particular verbal or literary genre. In addition, two subsidiary assumptions support the theory. First, the term dimension in this study does not correspond to the concept of mode commonly employed in genre studies. Rather, it refers to any aspect of a verbal or literary work that necessarily gives rise to a distinct genre. Second, every verbal or literary work possesses multiple dimensions, each corresponding to a single genre. This characteristic results in the interweaving of multiple genres within a single work. Nevertheless, the number of such dimensions is not unlimited; instead, they are finite, identifiable, and classifiable into kinds and types.   Research Findings Genre dimensions can be divided into two broad categories: structural and contextual. Each dimension consists of specific kinds and types, which together constitute verbal and literary genres. The structural dimensions include: Language, whose kinds comprise Persian, Arabic, English, and other languages, each of which may further include formal, colloquial, and dialectal varieties with numerous subtypes. Internal poetics, which today is no longer confined to poetry, fiction, and drama, comprises two broad categories: major forms, including theses, treatises, anthologies, books, periodicals, and the like; and minor forms, including proverbs and maxims, memoirs, news reports, short stories, biographies, travelogues, poems, screenplays, journal articles, plays, and so forth. External poetics, which consists of two principal kinds: prose and verse, each encompassing numerous types and subtypes. The remaining structural dimensions are internal style, external style, writing style, function, ethical level, subject matter, theme, length, organization, method, and discourse. The contextual dimensions include: Author's gender, under which at least two kinds may be investigated: masculine, exemplified by the epic tradition, and feminine, exemplified by the Persian folk genre of the lullaby. Author's profession, one type of which, for example, is academic criticism, understood as criticism produced by university scholars. The remaining contextual dimensions are authenticity of the work, mode of presentation, place of presentation, period of presentation, audience's level of knowledge, audience's age group, and institutional context of use.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions Between the traditional Aristotelian view of literary genres and the Romantic conception of the limitless nature of genres, there exists a more practical and comprehensive approach to the classification of literary genres: the multi-dimensional genre theory. The present study has proposed this theory and elucidated its principles, subsidiary components, and practical implications. From this perspective, every work possesses at least twenty-three generic dimensions and, consequently, at least twenty-three structural and contextual types and subtypes that interact and complement one another to shape its unique mode or tone of expression. The classification of verbal and literary types is likewise possible within the framework of these twenty-three generic dimensions. The classification developed in this study also provides a practical model for the typological analysis of literary works, thereby laying the foundation for genre-based analyses. This study has presented both the theoretical foundations underlying the above findings and their practical applications. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30353.html In the epic genre, hyperbole is far more than an ornamental rhetorical device; it constitutes the foundational ‘governing logic’ of the textual universe, representing reality not as it ‘is’, but as it ‘ought to be’. However, a fundamental question arises: how can hyperbole, despite transgressing the boundaries of physical reality, serve as the primary catalyst for ‘verisimilitude’ and the construction of a ‘superior realism’ within the heroic world, rather than evoking a sense of falsehood? Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, the present study explores the ontological function of this device in fostering the believability of the heroic realm by examining six verse epics: Shahnameh, Garshasp-nameh, Faramarz-nameh, Bahman-nameh, Kush-nameh, and Sam-nameh. The findings reveal that epic poets, in an effort to bridge the chasm between ‘constrained standard language’ and the ‘unbounded grandeur of the hero’, utilized hyperbole as a tool to craft ‘hyper-space’ and ‘cosmic sympathy’. Data analysis across four dimensions—‘geography and quantity’, ‘atmosphere and nature’, ‘physiology and time’, and ‘sound and resonance’—demonstrates that hyperbole, by suspending the causal laws of the material world, enables the ‘will’ to dominate ‘matter’. This mechanism detaches the audience from ‘linear and chronological time’ and transports them into ‘epic time’—a sacred dimension where supernatural actions are accepted not as fabrications, but as manifestations of ‘superior realism’ and ‘emotional sincerity’. Consequently, the verisimilitude of the epic is contingent upon the internal coherence of this hyperbolic system; its removal would reduce the text to a mere historical chronicle, devoid of its essential national spirit. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30668.html This study investigates the position and techniques of chronogram composition (mādda-tārīkh) in the Dīvān of Mohammad Qāsem Arsalān Ṭūsī, a tenth-century AH Iranian poet associated with the court of Emperor Akbar. Writing during the transition toward the Indian Style, he mainly followed the Iraqi Style and occasionally adopted the School of Occurrence. Although the date of his death remains disputed, he was renowned for his expertise in paleography, calligraphy, and chronogram composition. Using a descriptive-analytical method based on documentary research, this study examines the chronograms extracted from the manuscript of Arsalān’s Dīvān (Majles Library, MS No. 942, Folder 15242). The findings show that he employed diverse structural and artistic techniques, including izhār al-muḍmar, taʿmiya, numerical ambiguity, the omission and addition of letters, and emphatic and double chronograms. These chronograms mainly commemorate major events during Akbar’s reign, such as the conquest of Bengal and Gaur (982 AH), the births of royal princes, the completion of imperial buildings, and the compilation of the poet’s Dīvān. They constitute valuable historical evidence for Akbar’s period and demonstrate the artistic sophistication of chronogram composition in the tenth century AH. The study also highlights the historical and discursive functions of chronograms, including legitimizing political authority, promoting imperial power, and reinforcing the poet’s position as a court historian. The evidence further indicates that Arsalān was alive until 986 AH and probably died around 995 AH. Keywords: Arslan Tusi, Chronogram (mādda-tārīkh), Mughal India, Ta‘miya, Court Poetry. IntroductionChronogram (Tarikh-e She'ri), the art of recording events based on the numerical value of letters (Abjad system), represents a synthesis of literary aptitude and mathematical precision in Persian literature. This genre reached its artistic zenith during the Safavid and Mughal eras through the employment of complex techniques such as Ta’miya (enigma). Mohammad Qasem Arsalan Tusi, an Iranian immigrant poet in India, stands as a significant figure in this tradition; however, his manuscript Divan has received limited critical attention and analysis. The primary objective of this study is to elucidate the structural frameworks and discursive functions of Arsalan's chronograms.Given the significance of these poems in reconstructing the events of Emperor Akbar’s era, this research addresses the following two research questions: 1) What are the structural and thematic characteristics of Arsalan’s chronograms? 2) What political and social implications regarding the Mughal court atmosphere do these works reflect? Materials and MethodsThis study adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology with a documentary approach. The primary corpus consists of the manuscript of Arsalan Tusi’s Divan (Majlis Library, No. 942). All verses containing chronograms were extracted and classified based on thematic categories (birth of princes, military conquests, architectural projects, and courtly rituals) and structural types (explicit, enigmatic, and emphatic). Subsequently, utilizing Abjad calculations and cross-referencing with contemporary Mughal historical sources (such as Abul-Fazl’s Akbarnama and Bada'uni’s works), the political functions and technical accuracy of these verses were meticulously analyzed. Research FindingsThe findings of the study indicate that Arsalan’s chronograms follow a coherent pattern at both thematic and structural levels:Thematic Diversity: Encompassing dynastic events (birth of Prince Salim, Murad, and Daniyal), military campaigns (conquest of Mandu in 968 AH, Bengal in 982 AH), and architectural achievements (Qasr-e Ali-ye Akbari).Structural Techniques: The poet has employed the rhetoric of Izhar al-Muzmar (omission of the subject and invocation of attributes) and complex enigmas (such as the subtraction of letters) to create semantic suspense.Technical Precision: The extracted examples, such as the conquest of Bengal and Gaur (982 AH), show perfect correspondence with historical records, demonstrating the poet’s mastery over mathematics and the Abjad system. Beyond mere historical documentation, these poems functioned as strategic instruments of political propaganda. Discussion of Results and ConclusionThe examination of Arsalan Tusi’s chronograms reveals that this art form was not merely a tool for recording dates, but a sophisticated discursive strategy utilized to consolidate the political and religious legitimacy of Emperor Akbar’s reign. By employing techniques such as Izhar al-Muzmar and creating semantic suspense, the poet links the patron's name with exalted epithets—such as "Lord of Sea and Land" or "Shadow of God"—thereby placing the Emperor’s earthly power within an aura of mythological sanctity and Kianid lineage.The findings demonstrate that Arsalan Tusi, through his command of Ta’miya and precise Abjad calculations in pivotal events like the conquest of Bengal (982 AH) or the birth of princes, transcended the role of a mere panegyrist, emerging as an "eloquent historiographer." These poems serve as a vessel for showcasing the poet’s mastery over occult sciences and courtly rhetoric, where mathematics and literature converge to reinforce imperial authority. Consequently, Arsalan Tusi’s Divan emerges as a missing link in the evolution of chronogram-writing between Safavid Iran and Mughal India. These works, as literary-historical documents, not only mirror the social and political fabric of the Akbari era but also establish Arsalan’s stature as a pioneer poet in the transition toward the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi). Thus, further research into his works is an imperative for a nuanced understanding of the nexus of power, art, and intellect in that historical epoch. AcknowledgmentThe author extends gratitude to the Majlis Library for providing access to the manuscript of Arsalan Tusi’s Divan. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30421.html Since the language of dialogue is the most expressive and best tool for conveying concepts to the audience, many poets have used this method. The use of dialogue to explain various political and social concepts is one of the common features of contemporary Persian poetry. Contemporary poets have paid great attention to two elements—language and music—to make their dialogic poems more effective. Therefore, the authors attempt to analyze contemporary dialogic poetry from the two aspects of language and music, using an analytical-descriptive method based on contemporary dialogic poetry, in response to this fundamental question: What linguistic innovations and artistic techniques have contemporary poets used to highlight their dialogues, and what is their goal? By providing poetic evidence, they explain that contemporary poets have frequently used the element of dialogue in their poetry to have a greater impact on the audience and to persuade them more effectively. To further attract their audience, they have achieved linguistic foregrounding by using modern, rare, colloquial, and sometimes foreign words belonging to informal dialects and accents, as well as through neologism (word formation) and lexical and syntactic archaism. On the level of internal music, they have used various types of repetition to emphasize their speech. By employing simile, metaphor, popular ironies, contrast, proportion, synesthesia, and creative compound paradoxes, they have expanded the semantic dimension of their dialogues. In doing so, they aim to deviate as much as possible from the usual norms of language and the natural logic of speech, and through linguistic and semantic defamiliarization, achieve internal persuasion of the audience to accept their thoughts and feelings. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30673.html Cognitive poetics and image schema theory have provided new perspectives for understanding the hidden structure of imagination in contemporary poetry. Employing a descriptive-analytical method and based on the “embodied cognition” approach, the present research investigates the architecture of imagination in the Ghazals of Seyed Karim Amiri Firuzkuhi. The main question is how the poet’s lived experience, including chronic physical suffering and severe spatial isolation, has shaped his perceptual geometry and complex imagery within the context of the Indian style (Sabk-e Hindi). The research findings indicate that Firuzkuhi’s obscure metaphors are not merely imitative rhetorical devices, but rather cognitive reflections of his psychological distress and existential erosion. These experiences are reflected in two main categories: “schemas related to space and location” (Containment, Path, Orientational, and Center-Periphery) and “schemas related to existence” (Force, Link, Cycle, and Part-Whole). The high frequency of concepts such as the cage, being crushed, vicious circles, and the reduction of existence to mere bones demonstrates that the poet’s ailing body and restricted world, acting as the perceptual source, have shaped the abstract concepts of his mind and objectified the structure of his despairing worldview https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30601.html This study analyzes the narrative structure of Sodaa by Sudabeh Fazaeli based on Jaap Lintvelt's framework of narrative typology. Given that Fazaeli's works remain underexplored from a narratological perspective and the significance of examining innovative narrative structures in contemporary Persian literature, the study investigates how the four dimensions of narrative—including perceptual-psychological, temporal, spatial, and verbal dimensions—are represented within the novel's non-linear structure. The research method is based on structural analysis of the text and examines components such as point of view, temporal order, narrative space, and the narrator's discourse. The findings indicate that the dominant narrative type is homodiegetic auctorial narration, in which the first-person narrator recounts psychological and self-reflective experiences through a limited and mind-oriented perspective. At the same time, temporal and spatial flexibility, along with discursive diversity, enables the controlled presence of certain actorial features. Furthermore, self-reflective discourse, narrative disruptions, and suspense move the narrative beyond a mere representation of events and transform it into a reflection of the narrator's linguistic and psychological consciousness.   Keywords: Narrative Typology, Jaap Lintvelt, Sodaa, Sudabeh Fazaeli.   Introduction Sudabeh Fazaeli is recognized as one of the prominent writers and scholars of contemporary Persian literature whose works occupy a distinctive position due to their incorporation of mythological layers, symbolic structures, and interdisciplinary approaches. Her novel Sodaa, as one of her most significant works, represents an important example of narrative innovation in contemporary Persian literature through its mind-oriented, multilayered, and non-linear structure. Despite its literary significance and considerable potential for structural analysis, Fazaeli's works have received relatively limited scholarly attention in narratological studies. Previous studies have employed Jaap Lintvelt's theory in the analysis of various narrative texts and have demonstrated that narrative typology can provide an effective framework for explaining the structure and organization of literary narratives. Nevertheless, no independent study has yet examined the narrative structure of Sodaa based on the four dimensions proposed in Lintvelt's theory. Accordingly, the main objective of the present study is to investigate how perceptual-psychological, temporal, spatial, and verbal dimensions are reflected in the narrative structure of the novel. Furthermore, the study seeks to determine the narrative typological status of the work. The study is based on the hypothesis that Sodaa, through its mind-oriented perspective and self-reflective language, tends toward an auctorial narrative mode while simultaneously incorporating certain actorial features, thereby creating a hybrid and multilayered narrative structure.   Materials and Methods The present study adopts a qualitative approach and employs a descriptive-analytical method based on Jaap Lintvelt's theory of narrative typology as its theoretical framework. This theory, through its emphasis on the relationships among the narrator, the actor, and the narrative world, provides a framework for analyzing narrative structures across different dimensions. By examining narrative components, Lintvelt classifies narrative types according to perceptual-psychological, temporal, spatial, and verbal dimensions, thereby enabling the identification of the typological status of narrative works. The corpus of the present study consists of Sodaa by Sudabeh Fazaeli, which has been selected as the primary text for analysis. Research data were collected through a close reading of the novel and the extraction of textual instances related to narrative components. The analytical process was conducted through an examination of the narrative structure and by correlating textual evidence with the dimensions proposed in Lintvelt's theory. In this regard, components such as point of view, modes of representing consciousness and perception, temporal organization, spatial structure, and discursive features of the text were examined. Subsequently, the relationships among these components were analyzed in order to determine the narrative typological status of the novel and explain the formation of its narrative structure.   Research Findings The findings of the study indicate that Sodaa, within Jaap Lintvelt's framework of narrative typology, belongs to the category of homodiegetic narration and is characterized by the dominance of the auctorial mode accompanied by the controlled presence of certain actorial features. At the perceptual-psychological level, the narrative is constructed through a limited and mind-oriented first-person perspective, and the overlap between "who sees" and "who speaks" results in the representation of the story world through the narrator's unstable and psychological disruptions. The oscillation among memory, reality, and illusion further contributes to the multilayered structure of perception. Within the temporal dimension, narrative time is governed by the narrator's subjective experience, and the linear sequence of events is disrupted through temporal shifts, flashbacks, and mental associations. In the spatial dimension, places function less as sites of external action and more as reflections of the narrator's psychological, mental, and hallucinatory states, often assuming symbolic and metaphorical functions. At the verbal level, the variation of grammatical persons, particularly the use of the second-person pronoun as an alienated form of the "I," together with poetic language, internal dialogues, and multilayered discourse, creates a hybrid narrative structure. Overall, Sodaa combines auctorial and actorial characteristics to produce a multilayered and intergeneric narrative that transcends the boundaries of conventional narrative categories.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions The results of the present study suggest that the narrative structure of Sodaa cannot be fully explained within the framework of a single narrative category. Although, according to Jaap Lintvelt's criteria, the narrative generally falls within the category of homodiegetic narration with the dominance of the auctorial mode, meaningful features of the actorial mode also emerge across different narrative layers. Therefore, the study's hypothesis regarding the hybrid nature of the narrative structure is confirmed. The analysis of the perceptual-psychological, temporal, spatial, and verbal dimensions demonstrates that these components do not function independently; rather, they interact with one another to form a narrative network directly influenced by the narrator-character's mental and psychological condition. Within this structure, time departs from linear organization, space extends beyond a merely physical function, and language operates not only as a medium for conveying events but also as a means of representing the narrator's lived experience and psychological state. Consequently, the narrative moves beyond the simple recounting of events and becomes a process of mental reconstruction of experience. The findings also indicate that Lintvelt's theory of narrative typology, in addition to categorizing narrative structures, offers considerable potential for the analysis of complex and multilayered narratives in contemporary Persian literature. From this perspective, Sodaa may be regarded as a significant example of an intergeneric narrative that transcends established narrative boundaries and creates a dynamic and multidimensional structure. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30600.html In the interaction with Persian literature, Persian painting has consistently drawn upon the expressive capacities of verbal rhetorical figures to elevate its visual language. In this context, the visual translation of literary devices such as Tazmin (quotation), Talmih (allusion), and Eqtebas (adaptation) goes beyond a mere reference; rather, it functions as an intertextual tool through which the miniaturist integrates Quranic and narrative concepts with national epics, ultimately forging the essence of the “Persian Islamic Art Identity.” This approach has persisted into the contemporary era, where artists have sought to transcend traditional paradigms by employing these devices to reflect modern concerns. Aiming to explore how miniaturists utilize these rhetorical figures and their impact on artistic expression, the present study conducts a purposive analysis of seven paintings from the “Illustrated Shahnameh of the Academy of Arts” collection in modern Persian painting era. Methodologically, this research adopts an interdisciplinary approach utilizing a descriptive-analytical method. The findings reveal that these three literary devices manifest within the artworks via two primary mechanisms: the use of “textual inscriptions” (representing the visual manifestation of quotation and adaptation) and the creation of “evocative imagery” (representing visual allusion). Ultimately, the results demonstrate that the pivotal role of these devices in artistic expression lies in the generation of a multilayered visual language. This language effectively synthesizes the myths of the Shahnameh—serving as the Iranian component—with Islamic beliefs and contemporary historical events, thereby substantiating the emergence of the “Contemporary Islamic Persian Painting” school. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30669.html The present article attempts to examine the poetics of metaphor and its visual rhetorics, using a descriptive-analytical approach and applying philosophical approaches related to metaphor and poetic language, while introducing the Divan of Agha Mohammad Taghi Isfahani, pen name "Arif", and presenting a brief outline of the poetry of the period of return, and to show what effect the nature, structure, and function of metaphor have on the reading of mystical poetry. The hypothesis of the present article is that metaphor in the mystical poetry of great poets such as Rumi and Hafez has the characteristic of "reprocessing".. Therefore, the estimation of meaning in its images is without precedent and often intuitive. While metaphor in the period of return functions as an “icon image”; therefore, it has a narrative-persuasive nature, and since its structure lacks a new plot, it cannot be “paragon” and reach a level of interpretation and association. As a result; although metaphor in the poetry of this period takes on a mystical and Sufi gesture, it is devoid of establishing a connection between language and thought, and a creative stylistic touch in the image. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30676.html Modern literary criticism emphasizes that understanding the relationships among texts and identifying intertextual connections are essential for interpreting meaning and uncovering the hidden values of literary works. When such relationships emerge across different linguistic and cultural contexts, they become a significant subject of inquiry within the field of comparative literature. In this regard, the present study examines the works of the Russian writer Faddei Bulgarin, whose narratives often revolve around themes such as justice, merit, law, conscience, compassion, and ethical governance within social relations. The emergence of these themes can be understood as a natural consequence of the influence of Eastern narrative traditions, particularly the literary legacy of Saadi, during a period of perceived spiritual and moral vacuum in Russian literature. ‌ This influence is evident not only in thematic content but also in the application of specific literary forms and narrative structures. Adopting a comparative approach and a descriptive-analytical method, this study explores the dimensions of these intertextual relationships between Saadi and Bulgarin. The findings demonstrate that there exists a close connection between the two authors at both the thematic and formal levels. Didactic motifs, utopian perspectives, reflections on justice and ethics, as well as formal narrative elements such as characterization, the use of allegorical forms, and structured narrative settings in Bulgarin’s works can be interpreted as adaptations and inspirations derived from Saadi’s literary tradition https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30697.html Using puns is a major issue discussed in prosody books. Over time, prosodic works have introduced different types of puns. Some poets have shown their skill in versification by using puns in rhymes, but the use of this device in rhymes has remained somewhat neglected in prosody books. The poems composed in different periods of the Persian literature, some of which contain similar pun-based rhymes, suggest that such rhymes have historically been favored by poets, rhetoricians and compilers. Moreover, as reported by the books written in the west of the Muslim world (Andalucia), punning in rhymes was initiated by Abu al-Fath Bosti and then commonly practiced by poets. The present study introduces various types of puns in rhymes based on the rhyme patterns of different poetic forms. This is followed by the analysis of the opinions of some contemporary experts who refer to such poems as ‘punned ones’. Also, the significance of Abu al-Fath Bosti and his poetry for his contemporaries and followers after him is examined. In this context, a number of the poems imitating his style are brought up to analyze. The article ends up by reporting some mistakes that poem editors have made due to lack of familiarity with punning in rhymes. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30698.html The concept of literary genre has long been a central issue in literary criticism. Across different historical periods, various criteria have been used to classify literary works, including formal elements such as modes of expression, stylistic features, and rhetorical devices, as well as internal components such as mood, plot, and characterization. The present study, employing a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to clarify the criteria that Mikhail Bakhtin proposes for the classification of literary genres and to explain the concept of the chronotope, which plays a central role in his theory. The aim is to provide a more precise framework for understanding the classification of Persian literary genres. According to Bakhtin, every literary work represents the world and reality as they are understood within the consciousness of the author and the society to which he belongs. Literature thus reflects historical forms of consciousness, and the history of literature—and consequently the history of genres—corresponds to the development of human consciousness. From this perspective, the criteria for determining genre must be epistemological, since they relate to the ways in which consciousness perceives and understands reality. Because the fundamental dimensions through which reality is experienced are time and space, Bakhtin introduces the concept of the chronotope, or time-space continuum, as the primary criterion for genre classification. Through this concept, literary genres can be defined, historically situated, and genealogically analyzed according to their distinctive temporal and spatial configurations. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30710.html One of the prominent features of allegorical texts is their dual structure, consisting of surface and deep levels. Conceptual metaphor provides a useful framework for uncovering hidden layers of a text and exploring the creator’s thoughts, thus opening new perspectives of understanding for the reader. In other words, conceptual metaphor enables a clearer interpretation of abstract concepts by transferring them into concrete or relatively concrete domains.This study, using a descriptive-analytical method and based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphor, examines conceptual metaphors of “the world” and their source domains in Book Three of Rumi’s Masnavi-ye-Ma‘navi. It aims to identify meaningful connections between Rumi’s personal-social experiences and his selection of source domains for these metaphors. By analyzing these metaphors, the study seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the concept of the world in Rumi’s thought. The findings reveal that ontological metaphors of the world have the highest frequency in this book, while orientational metaphors have the lowest frequency. The analysis of source domains shows that Rumi mainly employs elements that had an experiential and tangible presence in his lived environment in Balkh and Konya.The results also indicate that the concept of “the world” in this work generally has a negative connotation. Rumi views the world from different perspectives and, through various conceptual metaphors, reveals broader dimensions of it as an earthly existence. Most of these metaphors emphasize the world’s deceptive nature, its ability to create attachment, and its role in preventing human beings from reaching the Eternal Beloved. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30768.html The sentence, as the most important unit of language study, has always been of interest. Many sentences, in addition to their primary meaning, have hidden purposes that are revealed by examining the infrastructure of the texts. By examining the texts, the ideology governing the author's society is revealed. The objection sentence, which is considered a salient sentence; although it is not considered an essential element; but it affects the author's power in presenting the material. Objection sentences are sometimes so established in the narrative structure that their removal causes semantic damage to the sentence. Objection sentences are a widely used discourse style in technical texts of the seventh century. Objection is examined in Persian grammar, Islamic rhetoric, and the West. Then, by categorizing the salient functions of objection sentences, the purposes in the texts are examined and the rhetorical methods of their use are introduced. The results of the research show that these sentences have eleven highlighting functions in technical texts, which are: manifestation of concepts resulting from simulation in creating the space of the text; sequence of synonyms to emphasize the word; politeness and power; objective descriptions; moving images on the horizontal axis of emotion and imagination; praise and prayer based on seeking favor for the king; cursing injustice; ironic protests and reflections on ideological issues; making specific experiences tangible using allegory; addressive admonitions and good endings. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30769.html Introduction: The Sacred Defense is one of the major multi-layered events in contemporary Iranian history. Due to its meta-normative, tragic, and epic nature, its representation in standard language has faced serious difficulties. Methodology: Drawing upon Leech's theory of deviation and using a descriptive-analytical method, this study examines types of deviation in 34 prominent works of the Sacred Defense. Findings: Among 500 extracted samples, semantic deviation with 110 cases (22%), lexical deviation with 90 cases (18%), and stylistic deviation with 75 cases (15%) were the most frequent. These are followed by syntactic (12%), dialectal (10%), temporal (9%), and phonological and graphological deviation (7% each). The aggregate of the first three types (67%) reflects the writers' priority in transforming the deep layers of language. Discussion and Conclusion: Deviation in these texts is not an escape from rules, but has created a new rule in harmony with the exceptional nature of war and the inexpressible experience. The connection between "the astonishment of the event" and "the breaking of language" constitutes the main stylistic feature of this prose. The prose of the Sacred Defense has transcended mere reportage and achieved an innovative language for representing the lived experience of grandeur and suffering. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30772.html Paradox in Persian mystical literature is not merely a rhetorical device but an epistemological tool through which the mystic articulates an experience beyond dualistic logic. This research, employing an analytical-comparative approach, examines the types and functions of paradox in two central texts of Persian mystical prose: Attar of Nishapur’s Tadhkirat al-Awliya (Memorial of the Saints) and Mawlana Jalal al-Din Balkhi (Rumi)‘s Fihi Ma Fihi (Discourses). The main research questions are: what types of paradox are present in these two texts, what functions do they serve, and what are the similarities and differences in the authors’ approaches to their use? The findings indicate the presence of ontological paradoxes (annihilation/subsistence), epistemological paradoxes (knowing through unknowing), identity paradoxes (erasure of the “self”), axiological paradoxes (reversal of reward-punishment systems), and linguistic paradoxes (speech/silence) in both texts. However, Attar employs paradox within the narrative context of the saints’ lives, adopting an experiential-narrative approach, whereas Rumi expresses paradox as a pedagogical and analytical principle within the framework of sermon gatherings. This difference stems from the generic nature of the two books: the hagiography versus the discourses. In both texts, paradox serves a cognitive function: breaking dualistic logic, creating an “epistemological shock,” and inviting the audience into the realm of intuitive experience. The conclusion is that paradox in Persian mystical literature acts as a bridge between language and meaning, between intellect and intuition, and both authors—through two different paths—reach the same destination. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30777.html Literary Sciences and Arts (1) is the first relatively coherent textbook introducing literary sciences at the upper-secondary level, and its scholarly accuracy and pedagogical soundness are crucial for the development of fundamental concepts in students. The present study aims to critically evaluate the content of this textbook from the perspectives of scientific accuracy and pedagogical efficacy across four domains: rhetoric, Persian prosody and rhyme, stylistics, and the history of Persian language and literature. This qualitative study is based on documentary research employing an analytical-comparative and critical approach. The unit of analysis encompasses every proposition, definition, classification, explanation, example, and textual evidence related to concepts of literary sciences; the data were analyzed through a systematic comparison of the textbook’s content with authoritative scholarly sources. The criteria for selecting reference sources included scholarly authority, academic credibility, citation value, direct relevance to the topic, and general acceptance among researchers in literary studies. Scientific accuracy, conceptual coherence, classification validity, appropriateness of evidence, and conformity with authoritative views—taking into account the multiplicity of expert perspectives—served as evaluation criteria. The identified issues, in order of frequency, fall into three categories: scientific errors, pedagogical shortcomings, and divergent specialized scholarly views. Scientific errors, accounting for the largest share, were predominantly concentrated in rhetoric and Persian prosody and rhyme; they manifested in defining and demarcating literary devices, identifying textual instances, formulating certain rules of scansion and syllabification, explaining phonetic value and rhyme elements, and distinguishing the concepts of meter, rhythm, and tone. In stylistics and the history https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30803.html In the analysis of power relations in a literary text, poetry and literary text are considered as a social action. In Foucault's belief, power relations are scattered in a chain and organizational form among the elements of a social system, including the state and the people, and are current and pervasive among the smallest and most insignificant behaviors and actions of individuals, individuals and classes of society. Therefore, any behavior and relationship between classes of society must be examined from the perspective of power discourse. The present article deals with this approach in detail and analyzes the discourse of power and its relations in Khaqani's imprisonment from the perspective of Michel Foucault; The result of the research is that the poet in prison uses words as a tool for resistance and struggle against the ruling power, and wherever he is defeated and subdued in these verbal conflicts with the ruler and rival poets, relying on his linguistic power, he uses poetry and the discourse of his knowledge as a tool for resistance, struggle, and discursive development, and uses the power of words to weaken or challenge the power that reduces and degrades the individuals of society to the level of submissive and obedient subjects. In his imprisonment, he seeks to highlight his scientific and poetic status against the power apparatus and his other rivals, and to force them to accept the verdict of release from prison and to prove the superiority of his position in poetry and consciousness. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30804.html This study examines the representation of existential anxieties in the confessional poetry of Forough Farrokhzad and Sylvia Plath and analyzes how existential crisis, individual identity, and the tension between the individual and social structures are articulated in their works. The originality of this article lies in proposing an analytical model for reading existential anxieties in confessional poetry, structured around four axes: body, role, language, and death. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical method based on a comparative reading of selected poems by the two poets. The findings show that in both poetic experiences the body becomes a site of suffering, alienation, and social pressure; gender and familial roles generate identity conflicts; language assumes a revelatory and resistant function; and death appears as the ultimate horizon of existential anxiety and the crisis of meaning. Despite these similarities, existential anxieties in Farrokhzad’s poetry are more closely connected to cultural and social constraints, whereas in Sylvia Plath’s poetry they take a more internal and psychological form. The results suggest that confessional poetry, beyond expressing personal experience, provides a space for representing the crises of modern human existence and rethinking the relationship between the subject, body, language, and death. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30806.html The Shahnameh, while reflecting the patterns of Iranian mythology, also preserves and transmits them, which can be achieved by analyzing the evidence and clues in its stories and using other texts of ancient Iran. Among the patterns discussed is the presence of ancient Indo-Iranian gods, signs of which can be seen in the lower layers of the verses. One of these gods is Upam-nabat (the god of water), who is present in Siavushi's dreams. To confirm this, examples from the Avesta and Rigveda texts are also mentioned. In this study, we analyze Siavushi's dreams and the presence of the god Upam-nabat in Shahnameh based on library studies and qualitative content analysis. The candle emerging from the water is a link between the cosmic element and the element of water; That is, the god Apamnepat refers to its keeper. The brightness of the candle in the water refers to the brightness of the fire in the water and the luminous attribute of this god; because Apamnepat is the keeper of the cosmic fire and is as brilliant as Amshaspandan.The brightness of the candle in the water refers to the brightness of the fire in the water and the luminous attribute of this god; because Apamnepat is the keeper of the cosmic fire and is as brilliant as Amshaspandan https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30815.html Although Ahmadreza Ahmadi’s poetry relies heavily on simple, everyday vocabulary, it consistently resists direct interpretation. This study investigates how this resistance arises from the poem’s formal and structural organization, arguing that it reflects not the absence of meaning but the production of multilayered and suspended signification. The corpus comprises selected poems from the three-volume My Poems and The Footprints of Lovers Remain in the Snow. Using a descriptive-analytical approach, the study proceeds in three stages. The formalist analysis examines foregrounding through the refunctionalization of familiar words, archaic vocabulary, unconventional collocations, syntactic ellipsis, repetition, and lineation. The structuralist analysis reconstructs networks of repetition and binary oppositions involving signs such as death, the window, rain, the seasons, fruits, the house, and the alley. The deconstructive analysis explores how these oppositions are subsequently destabilized and rendered indeterminate. The findings show that Ahmadi’s poetic innovation depends less on lexical invention than on the refunctionalization of ordinary language, the juxtaposition of semantic fields, and the transfer of rhythm from prosodic meter to syntactic and visual organization. Although oppositions such as life/death, presence/absence, morning/night, and window/wall provide structural coherence, each term simultaneously absorbs features of its counterpart, preventing semantic closure. Moreover, the dialogues in the corpus do not produce Bakhtinian polyphony but remain within a predominantly lyrical monologue characterized by multilayered signification. Ahmadi’s distinctive style thus emerges from the tension between lexical simplicity and complex signifying relations, shifting meaning from explicit statement to the reader’s active interpretation. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30816.html Postcolonial and late colonial studies constitute an important interdisciplinary field that has been extensively reflected in literary works. This theoretical framework examines the ideological confrontation between the subordinated East and the dominant West, seeking to reveal the discursive relationship between colonizer and colonized. Gholamhossein Saedi's Ay Bi Kolah And Ay Ba Kolah, one of the most significant works of modern Iranian drama, offers a symbolic representation of the mechanisms through which colonial domination is reproduced in its modern forms. Drawing upon the theoretical framework of Neo-coloniahism and late colonialism, this study examines the major characters of the play and demonstrates how their careful construction effectively conveys Saedi's central concern: the transformation of colonial strategies from overt domination into more sophisticated and indirect forms of control. Through symbolic characterization, Saedi exposes the diverse mechanisms of colonial hegemony while depicting the subtle discourses governing the relationship between colonizer and colonized. His dramatic representation extends beyond literary analysis into broader political, sociological, and anthropological concerns, in particular the internal vulnerabilities of colonized societies and the role played by local elites; and political authorities in facilitating colonial domination through domestic weaknesses and foreign policy failures. This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology to investigate the symbolic dimensions of colonial discourse in Saedi's dramatic work and to demonstrate how the play anticipates many of the central concepts developed in contemporary postcolonial theory. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30834.html The examination of syntax provides an effective means of understanding an author’s intellectual framework. Using a descriptive-analytical approach and the theory of layered stylistics, this study investigates the role of the syntactic layer in conveying Rumi’s ideas in the Masnavi-ye Ma'navi. Focusing on the “Song of the Reed” and the story of the “King and the Handmaiden,” it analyzes the syntactic structures of 250 verses to determine how linguistic organization contributes to meaning. The findings show that, owing to the didactic nature of the Masnavi, Rumi generally avoids syntactic complexity and employs the natural order of language as a stylistic feature. This preference reflects both the direct expression of truth in his worldview and his concern for clarity. In cases of marked word order, particularly verb-fronting, he creates emphasis, highlights the importance of action and movement, and reveals the influence of Qur’anic language. The narrative character of the text, together with descriptions of mystical experiences, results in the predominance of the indicative mood, which conveys certainty and authority. The frequent use of the simple present and simple past tenses reinforces the sense of confidence and authenticity in Rumi’s discourse. Moreover, devices such as restriction, realized present-tense verbs, parables, and interrogatives strengthen its emphatic quality. While stative and passive verbs are common in narrative passages, dynamic and active verbs become more prominent when Rumi speaks in his own voice, reflecting the centrality of action and dynamism in his thought. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30866.html AbstractSa'di's amorous Tarji'band is considered one of the most celebrated compositions in this form in the history of Persian literature. It is a long and resonant masterpiece that has attracted the attention of poets and scholars for centuries. The present article aims to demonstrate three types of deviation in this work. According to Geoffrey Leech, deviation is one of the two primary methods of linguistic foregrounding through which automatized language is transformed into literary language. Leech identifies eight different types of deviation, each occurring with varying frequency in Sa'di's poetry. In Sa'di's Tarji'band, phonological, semantic, and syntactic deviation appear most prominently. This paper examines the poet’s employment of these three types of deviation through a descriptive-analytical approach, within the framework of Formalism and based on Leech’s model of deviation. Phonological deviation occurs primarily through the elision of words in order to conform to metre and rhyme. Syntactic deviation is often achieved through omission, anastrophe, and modifications to standard grammatical structures. Semantic deviation is realised through contextualisation by means of lexical cohesion and repetition, as well as the use of various literary devices such as simile, metaphor, contrast, and amphibology.