https://liar.ui.ac.ir/ Literary Arts en daily 1 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 21 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30284.html https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29794.html The novel Symphony of the Dead by Abbas Maroufi stands as one of the most significant and widely read works of contemporary Persian literature, primarily due to its meticulous characterization. This study conducts a systematic analysis of the novel’s characters using the Enneagram personality typology, a psychological framework that categorizes human personality into nine distinct types. The research aims to identify the typological alignment of fictional characters and examine how this alignment enhances narrative believability and reader engagement. The findings reveal that Maroufi’s characters exhibit traits and behaviors closely resonant with real human psychological patterns, thereby enhancing authenticity and interpretive depth. The application of the Enneagram shows that the characters display recurring psychological tendencies, including emotional intensity, authoritarian dominance, and idealistic rigor, which align with readers’ lived experiences. This correspondence fosters a strong empathetic connection between audience and text. By systematically classifying each character according to dominant Enneagram types and analyzing their narrative roles, the study demonstrates the interplay between typological psychology and literary characterization. Ultimately, the research highlights that integrating psychological theory into literary analysis can deepen understanding of character construction, narrative plausibility, and the enduring appeal of modern Persian fiction. The novel Symphony of the Dead is among the most widely read works of contemporary Persian literature. This study examines the fictional characters through the lens of Enneagram personality typology. The findings indicate that the characters closely resemble real human personality types from a psychological perspective. This resemblance enhances character believability and fosters empathy among readers. Maroufi’s careful depiction of characters reflecting contemporary human behaviors contributes significantly to the novel’s popularity. By identifying and classifying each character according to the frequency of their dominant traits, this research analyzes the psychological features of all main characters in the story. Keywords: Enneagram, Symphony of the Dead, Character Psychology, Abbas Maroufi, Literary Analysis, Iranian Novel.IntroductionCharacterization forms the structural foundation of narrative fiction, serving as a key determinant of a story’s interpretive coherence and aesthetic credibility. In literary studies, the extent to which fictional characters reflect real human psychological complexity is considered crucial for narrative success. Within this context, the Enneagram personality typology provides a robust analytical lens, allowing scholars to examine fictional representations in relation to nine universal personality categories. Unlike approaches limited to pathological or therapeutic perspectives, the Enneagram addresses the full spectrum of human behavior, including ordinary and elevated states of being.This study situates Maroufi’s Symphony of the Dead within this framework, hypothesizing that the novel’s critical acclaim and popularity are closely linked to the psychological authenticity of its characters. The research problem is formulated as an inquiry into the degree of resemblance between Maroufi’s fictional characters and empirically recognized personality patterns. Additionally, this investigation highlights the intersection of psychology and narratology, positing that the believability of fictional figures emerges from their ability to evoke recognition, empathy, and identification in readers. Consequently, the study contributes to broader debates in literary theory regarding the integration of psychological models into textual analysis, with a particular focus on modern Persian fiction.Characterization is the backbone of any story, and the closer fictional characters are to real human beings, the more comprehensible and convincing the narrative becomes. The Enneagram emphasizes both natural and elevated states of individuals rather than pathological or therapeutic concerns. Maroufi’s characterizations in this novel closely mirror real human personality types, especially the nine Enneagram categories, enhancing realism and reader engagement. This section also defines the research problem: assessing the degree to which fictional characters resemble real human types, and exploring the relationship between believability, personality psychology, and reader engagement. Materials and MethodsThis study adopts a qualitative methodology, relying on content analysis and library-based research. All main characters of Symphony of the Dead were examined and classified according to Enneagram personality types. The analysis focused on identifying each character’s dominant type and comparing their behaviors with real human psychological patterns. Research FindingsThe findings indicate that the principal characters of Symphony of the Dead align consistently with Enneagram categories, demonstrating the novel’s psychological depth. Ayda exemplifies Type 4 (The Individualist), characterized by heightened emotionality, aesthetic sensitivity, and tendencies toward alienation and despair. Her narrative trajectory reflects the vulnerabilities of this type, culminating in self-destructive behaviors reminiscent of patterns observed in real individuals.Orhan and the father both represent Type 8 (The Challenger), displaying authoritarian control, assertiveness, and a drive for dominance. Their interactions reveal the inherent conflicts of this type, including power struggles and resistance to vulnerability, which shape much of the novel’s tension. Aydin corresponds to Type 1 (The Reformer), marked by idealism, moral rigor, and perfectionism, which inform his ethical decisions and tragic struggles against societal and familial constraints. The mother similarly aligns with Type 1, highlighting intergenerational continuities in psychological disposition. Sourmelina embodies Type 2 (The Helper), displaying altruism, emotional dependency, and self-sacrifice.Collectively, these mappings underscore Maroufi’s literary craftsmanship and demonstrate the utility of the Enneagram in elucidating the psychological coherence of fictional characters. The alignment of typological constructs with narrative evidence supports the argument that character believability arises from their reflection of recognizable human behavioral patterns.The analysis shows that the novel’s central characters—Ayda, Orhan, Aydin, the father, the mother, and Sourmelina—consistently display traits corresponding to specific Enneagram types. Ayda aligns with Type 4, Orhan and the father with Type 8, Aydin with Type 1, the mother also with Type 1, and Sourmelina with Type 2. Detailed textual evidence supports these psychological classifications, enhancing character realism and depth. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe analysis suggests that the enduring appeal and critical success of Abbas Maroufi’s Symphony of the Dead stem largely from the precision of its psychological characterization. By embedding traits, strengths, and vulnerabilities associated with Enneagram types into his characters, Maroufi creates a fictional world with strong psychological verisimilitude.For example, Ayda’s eventual descent into depression and self-destructive behaviors exemplifies the pathological tendencies of Type 4, reinforcing narrative plausibility. Aydin’s moral idealism reflects both the positive and negative poles of Type 1, simultaneously eliciting empathy and foreshadowing tragic outcomes. Orhan and the father, as Type 8 characters, demonstrate the destructive potential of unchecked authority and dominance, reflecting not only familial conflicts but also broader societal power dynamics.These findings highlight the methodological value of integrating Enneagram theory into literary criticism, allowing for systematic analysis of how fictional constructs mirror recognizable human psychodynamics. Moreover, the study illustrates how psychological realism enhances literature’s affective impact by fostering empathy, identification, and reflection among readers. The conclusions affirm that Maroufi’s achievement lies in bridging narrative art and psychological insight, offering a model for interdisciplinary approaches to modern Persian fiction. Such integration enriches both literary scholarship and applied psychology, positioning the novel as a fertile site for cross-disciplinary research.The study concludes that the success and popularity of Symphony of the Dead are largely attributable to Maroufi’s precise and psychologically credible characterization. By accurately incorporating traits, strengths, and vulnerabilities associated with specific Enneagram types, Maroufi constructs characters whose actions and fates resonate with readers as authentically human. For instance, Ayda’s tragic trajectory reflects her Type 4 tendencies toward depression and self-destruction, while Aydin’s idealism and moral rigor illustrate the strengths and limitations of a Type 1 personality, enhancing the novel’s emotional impact. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29702.html AbstractThis research examines the manifestations of romantic concepts in Afghanistan’s press poetry, with a particular focus on poems published in Zhowandun, one of the most significant literary and cultural periodicals/journals in Afghanistan during the second half of the twentieth century. Active during a transformative period in Afghanistan’s political and social history, Zhowandun served as a platform for the publication of poems with diverse perspectives and thematic orientations. The primary aim of this study is to examine the romantic content of these poems. The study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology and relies on library-based sources to investigate how romantic ideas are embedded in the poetry featured in this journal. The findings reveal that poems published in Zhowandun, amidst a historically turbulent context, vividly reflect profound human emotions such as love, sacrifice, ecstasy, mysticism, and patriotic sentiment. Furthermore, themes such as nature-worship, nostalgia, martyrdom, freedom, and the condemnation of oppression are prominently present, conveying a revolutionary and romantic spirit. Distinguished poets, emphasizing these motifs, have played a significant role in shaping the imagery and thematic framework of the romantic poetic movement in Afghanistan as represented in Zhowandun. Keywords: Afghanistan’s Contemporary Poetry, Zhowandun Journal, Poetry Movements, Romanticism. IntroductionRomanticism, a major literary movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, arose as a reaction to classical rationalism and Enlightenment doctrines. Centered on emotion, imagination, nature, and tradition, it profoundly reshaped art and literature. By introducing rebellious characters and exploring the spiritual crises of human existence, Romanticism offered a deep, universal portrayal of the human condition.In Afghanistan, literary Romanticism—especially in press poetry—emerged in the late nineteenth century, parallel with cultural shifts and the growing impact of Western literary translations. Intellectual circles and the press played a vital role in introducing, promoting, and expanding this movement. Modern poetry, distinguished by refined language and themes like love, freedom, and resistance to social norms, became a key form of Romantic expression in contemporary publications.Among these, Zhowandun stood out as one of the most influential literary-cultural journals of the second half of the twentieth century. It significantly reflected and advanced Romantic ideals, offering a powerful platform for literary idealism. While various studies have examined literature and the press in Iran, the Romantic dimensions of Afghanistan’s press poetry—particularly within journals like Zhowandun—remain largely underexplored.This research focuses on poems published in Zhowandun. It aims to answer two main research questions:How are Romantic concepts reflected in the poems of Zhowandun?Which poets and writers contributed to shaping these concepts? Materials and MethodsThis study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach and is grounded in library-based sources to systematically and rigorously examine Romantic concepts in the poems published in the literary-cultural journal of Zhowandun. With an interdisciplinary orientation, the research bridges the domains of literature, press history, and cultural studies to reexamine the emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic dimensions of Romanticism as expressed through press poetry.To this end, the researcher has collected and analyzed a set of poetic samples from various issues of Zhowandun, aiming to identify thematic and conceptual manifestations of Romanticism. The study particularly focuses on how Romantic elements such as individualism, emotionalism, nostalgia, and nature-worship are reflected in the broader social context. The use of written sources, archival documents, and meticulous data categorization enables a comprehensive and analytical perspective on the role and significance of this journal in portraying Romantic tendencies in Afghanistan’s contemporary literature.In examining the relationship between poetry and the press, this research endeavors to offer a clear image of how Romantic sentiment developed and expanded within the country’s cultural landscape. It highlights the role of the press—especially Zhowandun—in cultivating an aesthetic and emotion-driven poetic sensibility. Research FindingsRomanticism is an artistic and literary movement that, through its emphasis on emotion, individualism, creative imagination, and the veneration of nature, has played a vital role in transforming aesthetic sensibilities, especially within the realm of poetry. This school of thought, inherently multifaceted, pluralistic, and even contradictory, initiated an intellectual and aesthetic revolution against classical rationalism by advocating for personal freedom and emotional expression.In the context of Afghanistan, press poetry represents one of the prominent expressions of this movement. It not only serves as a space for articulating personal sentiments and poetic imagination, but also functions as a sociocultural medium reflecting public concerns in the face of identity, political, and cultural crises. Romantic themes such as philosophical despair, nostalgia, idealized love, nature-centeredness, and rebellious passion are vividly present in this type of poetry, situating it at the intersection of classical literature and modern journalism, and between social engagement and poetic fervor. Examining this convergence opens new horizons for understanding the intellectual and cultural developments within Afghan society. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAs one of the most influential tools of mass communication, the press has played a foundational role in reflecting, disseminating, and evolving literary movements. Journals and magazines, by publishing literary works, have enhanced artistic taste among readers, expanded intellectual horizons, and facilitated interaction between authors and their audiences. Among these, Romanticism—emphasizing emotion, imagination, and individualism—particularly during times of crisis, has been notably reflected in Afghanistan’s press poetry.This study, focusing on the journal Zhowandun, demonstrates that the periodical reflects a wide range of Romantic concepts such as love, patriotic sentiment, nature-worship, nostalgia, joy, and socially engaged themes. Prominent poets such as Rafat Hossaini, Peygham-e Badakhshani, Bairang Kuhdamani, Shayiq Jamal, Pajwak, Latif Nazemi, among others, have portrayed Romantic motifs in both individual and social dimensions through their contributions to Zhowandun. Among these voices, Rafat Hossaini, Bairang Kuhdamani, and Shayiq Jamal—through systematic approaches—have played the most significant roles in articulating the elements of Romanticism. Their works not only represent personal emotions but also serve as catalysts for literary and social reflection.In summary, Zhowandun, by providing a dynamic and open platform, has played a key role in the reflection and flourishing of Romanticism within Afghanistan’s press poetry. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29967.html This study investigates the role of proverbs and idiomatic expressions in Safavid Iran as documented in European travelogues by Shirley, Tavernier, and Olearius. These linguistic expressions reflect cultural values, social norms, ethical principles, and regional characteristics, providing insights into the daily life and worldview of Iranians during the Safavid period. The research identifies key themes such as self-reliance, resilience, criticism of futile efforts and resource wastage, regional pride, the importance of foundational virtues, social appearance, economic prudence, and moral learning from negative examples. Comparative analysis with classical Persian literature—including the Shahnameh, Golestan, and Masnavi—demonstrates the continuity between oral proverbs and literary traditions. The study also examines instances in which foreign travelers misinterpreted these expressions due to linguistic and cultural differences, underscoring the importance of contextual understanding in cross-cultural studies. Findings indicate that proverbs functioned as concise vehicles for transmitting ethical, social, and practical knowledge, serving both as cultural capsules and behavioral guides. This research contributes to the understanding of Iranian culture, social structures, and ethical paradigms during the Safavid era through a linguistic and literary lens. Keywords: Proverb, Travelers, Travelogue, Safavid Era.  IntroductionThis study explores Persian proverbs and idiomatic expressions recorded in the travelogues of European visitors such as Shirley, Tavernier, and Olearius during the Safavid era. Its primary objective is to analyze these expressions as cultural artifacts that reflect social norms, ethical teachings, regional distinctions, and historical perspectives in early modern Iran. While much research has focused on literary texts, few studies have systematically examined travelogues as sources for understanding the interaction between oral tradition, societal values, and cross-cultural perceptions.The central research question is: How do proverbs documented in European travelogues reflect Iranian cultural, ethical, and social values, and how have travelers’ interpretations shaped Western perceptions of Safavid society? This study contributes by documenting the continuity of cultural values in Iranian proverbs and critically assessing European travelers’ perspectives, including instances of misinterpretation due to linguistic or cultural differences.The scope is confined to the Safavid period and selected travelogues, acknowledging that these sources may contain translation errors, personal biases, and selective reporting. Nevertheless, comparison with contemporary Persian literary and historical texts indicates that these proverbs offer valuable insights into ethical norms, social hierarchies, economic attitudes, and regional characteristics. The study also highlights the pedagogical function of proverbs, their didactic role, and their contribution to reinforcing societal expectations. Materials and MethodsThis research employs a qualitative and comparative approach, focusing on proverbs and idiomatic expressions recorded in European travelogues during the Safavid era, including works by Sherley (1978), Tavernier (1984), and Olearius (1984). The primary sources were examined in their original Persian translations and cross-checked against historical and literary texts, such as the Shahnameh, Golestan, Masnavi, and chronicles by Rashid al-Din and Yezdi, to verify cultural consistency and historical context.Data collection involved identifying proverbs with recurring themes, including self-reliance, economic prudence, regional characteristics, social etiquette, ethical learning, and the use of animals and nature in expression. Each proverb was categorized according to theme, historical reference, ethical implication, and travelers’ interpretation. Cross-cultural analysis was conducted to highlight instances where European travelers misunderstood or exaggerated the meaning due to linguistic, social, or cultural differences.Analytical techniques included thematic coding, textual comparison, and historical contextualization. Visual tools such as tables and charts were used to summarize proverbs according to category, frequency, and correspondence with Persian literary and historical sources. This methodology allows for a systematic understanding of the cultural significance of proverbs while accounting for translation biases and observer subjectivity inherent in travelogues.The study emphasizes the integrative use of literature, travel accounts, and historical chronicles to provide a holistic interpretation of Safavid cultural and ethical norms as expressed through proverbs. Research FindingsThe analysis of proverbs and idiomatic expressions from European travelogues during the Safavid era revealed several thematic patterns reflecting Iranian cultural values and social norms. First, proverbs emphasizing self-reliance and individual capability (e.g., “Every person should rely on their own craft”) highlight the importance of personal skills and independent effort in Safavid society. Corresponding Persian literature, including Rumi’s Masnavi and Saadi’s Golestan, reinforces this emphasis on proactive personal agency.Second, regional and environmental characteristics were frequently celebrated or critiqued. Proverbs such as “Wheat from the soil of Izad Khas, a Yazdi woman, Shirazi wine” illustrate admiration for local products and cultural traits, whereas expressions related to Gilan emphasize environmental hardships and historical perceptions of exile.Third, economic prudence and the use of opportunities emerge in proverbs addressing resource management and commercial acumen, reflecting both indigenous practices and travelers’ observations of missed potential. Fourth, learning from negative examples is highlighted in proverbs such as “Manners are learned from the ill-mannered”, revealing a pedagogical dimension in moral and ethical education.Fifth, animals and natural elements are used metaphorically to express emotions, warnings, and social behaviors; for instance, “A Kashan scorpion may sting your hand” symbolizes danger and sudden harm, showing the integration of environmental experience into moral and social discourse.Overall, the findings indicate that these proverbs encapsulate Safavid values related to ethics, self-reliance, social etiquette, economic insight, and interaction with nature. Moreover, European travelers often misinterpreted or exaggerated these expressions due to cultural and linguistic differences, highlighting the need for careful contextual analysis. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe analysis demonstrates that Safavid proverbs, as recorded by European travelers such as Shirley, Tavernier, and Olearius, provide a multidimensional view of Iranian society, reflecting ethical, social, economic, and environmental values. Proverbs emphasizing self-reliance and personal skill reveal a culture that valued individual initiative alongside spiritual reliance, aligning with classical Persian literature such as Rumi’s Masnavi and Saadi’s Golestan.Regional and environmental proverbs show how geography and climate shaped cultural perceptions. Positive attributions, like Shirazi wine or Yazdi beauty, highlight local pride, whereas references to Gilan reflect historical hardships and the sociopolitical notion of exile. Such expressions illustrate the interplay between environmental conditions and societal attitudes.Proverbs addressing economic prudence and opportunity utilization suggest an awareness of resource management, commercial foresight, and the consequences of neglecting potential. Similarly, learning from negative examples demonstrates an educational strategy where observation of others’ faults promotes ethical and practical development.The use of animal and natural metaphors to convey danger, moral lessons, or social sentiments indicates the deep integration of the natural world into everyday discourse.European travelers often misinterpreted these proverbs due to linguistic and cultural differences, emphasizing the importance of contextual knowledge in cross-cultural studies. Overall, these proverbs serve as cultural capsules, providing insight into Safavid social norms, values, and worldviews, while illustrating continuity with broader Persian ethical and literary traditions. The study confirms that the proverbs’ enduring relevance lies in their ability to communicate complex social, moral, and environmental lessons succinctly. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29951.html The poem Khosrow and Shirin by Muhammad Sadiq Nami Isfahani, a prominent imitation (nazireh) from the Literary Return (Bazgasht-e Adabi) period, has often been studied primarily through narrative comparisons with Nizami Ganjavi’s masterpiece. The principal aim of this research is to move beyond content-based analyses to identify, categorize, and explain Nami’s most significant stylistic innovations and deviations at various linguistic levels, thereby proving he was not a mere imitator but a creative poet with a distinct style. This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology grounded in the principles of Layered stylistics. For this purpose, the corrected text of Nami’s Khosrow and Shirin was meticulously analyzed, and deviations from standard language and literary tradition—innovations and deviations—were extracted and examined at four levels: lexical, syntactic, rhetorical, and structural, supported by poetic evidence. The findings reveal that Nami Isfahani consciously implemented noteworthy stylistic innovations. At the lexical level, the fabrication of verbs, novel compounds, and archaisms are prominent. Syntactically, he achieved foregrounding and verbal music through the transposition of sentence elements. In rhetoric, contrary to the complexities of the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi), he utilized simple and sensory similes and metaphors. Major plot modifications were also executed in line with this pragmatic and simplifying approach. These innovations demonstrate that Nami, operating within the Nazireh tradition, imprinted his artistic signature on the work through specific linguistic choices, creatively reimagining the ancient narrative within the discourse of the Zand era. Keywords: Stylistics, Innovation, Deviation, Nami Isfahani, Khosrow and Shirin.  IntroductionStyle is the distinctive mode of expression that shapes the identity of a literary work. It emerges through an author’s conscious or unconscious selections from the possibilities of language, particularly manifested as “innovation” and “norm deviation”. In Persian literature, the tradition of Nazireh-guyi (emulative composition) served as a platform for creative dialogue with the works of masters like Nizami Ganjavi. During the Zand dynasty and within the context of the “Literary Return” movement—a reaction against the complexities of the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi)—Mohammad Sadeq Nami Isfahani (d. 1204 AH/1789 CE) recreated Nizami’s romance, Khosrow and Shirin.Focusing on stylistics and moving beyond mere narrative comparisons, this research addresses a fundamental question: What are the stylistic innovations and norm deviations in Nami’s work that distinguish it from Nizami’s masterpiece? The primary objective is to systematically identify these innovations and demonstrate that Nami was a creative and original poet, not merely an imitator. The significance of this study lies in filling a research gap concerning the stylistic analysis of works from the “Literary Return” period and redefining “imitation” as a “creative dialogue” with literary heritage, thereby challenging common perceptions of this era. Materials and MethodsThe present study was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method based on library resources. Initially, the primary text, the “Khosrow and Shirin” poem by Nami Isfahani, was meticulously examined by close textual analysis and systematic annotation. Subsequently, stylistic innovations and norm deviations were identified at the thematic, structural, and linguistic levels. Finally, these features were analyzed and explained within the theoretical framework of stylistics, employing a comparative approach against the canonical work, Nizami Ganjavi’s Khosrow and Shirin. Research FindingsThis research demonstrates that Mohammad Sadeq Nami Isfahani’s Khosrow and Shirin is the product of a conscious and stylistic recreation within the framework of the “Literary Return” movement, rather than a passive imitation of Nizami. The findings indicate that Nami’s innovations on four primary levels create an independent identity for his work: Content and Structure: By omitting philosophical-mystical elements, simplifying the plot (e.g., shortening Farhad’s episode), and altering characters (transforming Shapur into a pragmatic advisor), Nami crafted an action-focused, worldly narrative. By adding Shi’ite content, he also reflected his own religious ideology, transforming the story from a lyrical-mystical romance into a fast-paced romantic drama. Syntax: Nami’s most prominent innovation at this level is his “conscious simplification” of syntax. Through a predominance of simple sentences, avoidance of complex inversions (ta’qid), and the use of plain and conversational structures, he turned the poem into a transparent and swift narrative. Conversely, through purposeful “syntactic archaism”—employing obsolete structures like the particle rā (known as fakk-e ezafe) and the use of “abā” and “hamī”—he lent his language the gravitas of the Khorasani style. Rhetoric: In the realm of imagery, Nami deliberately distanced himself from the complexity and abstraction of the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi), opting for simple, sensory, and classical similes (e.g., comparing the army to a flood) and action-oriented metonymies (e.g., “reining back”). He prefers a “language of simile” over a “language of metaphor” to ensure narrative clarity is not sacrificed for rhetorical artistry. Lexicon: Through novel compound words (e.g., ātashin-khūy or “fiery-tempered”), the creation of neologistic verbs, and the integration of colloquial vocabulary (“harf” instead of “sokhan” for ‘speech’), Nami brought the poetic language closer to the discourse of his era. This approach, alongside lexical archaism (using “zinhār” for ‘beware’), demonstrates his linguistic mastery and purposeful stylistic choices to create a work that is both faithful to tradition and independently identifiable. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe stylistic analysis of Nami Isfahani’s Khosrow and Shirin reveals that the work is not a passive imitation but the product of conscious and creative choices within the framework of the “Literary Return” movement. Nami forged an independent identity for his work by transforming its narrative and linguistic structures. His innovations are prominent on four levels: 1) Thematic: By omitting philosophical and mystical elements and simplifying the plot, he created a pragmatic and worldly narrative; 2) Lexical: He invigorated the language through novel compounds and deliberate archaism, employing vocabulary from the Khorasani style to impart classical gravitas; 3) Syntactic: Through inversion of sentence components and the use of archaic expressive methods, he established a distinct rhythm and syntactic structure; and 4) Rhetorical: Distancing himself from the abstraction of the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi), he favored simple and tangible similes akin to the Iraqi Style.Nami’s archaisms were a deliberate deviation from the standard language of his time (Sabk-e Hendi) and served the goal of reviving classical traditions. The findings prove that he was not a mere imitator but an original poet (sāḥib-sabk, i.e., one possessing a unique style) who, with linguistic mastery, recreated an ancient narrative in a creative dialogue with literary heritage. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30147.html In the study of literary texts, one sometimes encounters words that, in their outward form, resemble certain types of paronomasia (jinas). However, since they do not fulfill all the required conditions of paronomasia, they cannot be classified under this rhetorical device or considered among its subcategories. On the other hand, in their non-visual or underlying form, these words also resemble another rhetorical figure in badīʿ, namely repetition; yet again, because they lack some of the defining criteria of repetition, they cannot be subsumed under that category either. The dual manifestation of these words may create the impression of the presence of paronomasia or repetition for the reader; nevertheless, in reality, neither device is fully realized. In other words, these paired words, which stand opposite one another as if they were the structural elements of paronomasia or repetition, are in fact neither paronomasia nor repetition. In this study, the authors examine the relationship between such word pairs and explain the reasons why, despite their strong resemblance to paronomasia and repetition, they cannot be classified under either rhetorical device. For clearer identification, they also propose a specific term for these ambiguous word pairs. The research method adopted in this study is library-based and relies on data analysis, with data extracted from documents and literary texts. The results of the analysis indicate that, at times, men of letters deliberately avoided direct word repetition in poetic verses due to stylistic necessities, instead employing different forms of the same word within a single verse. The use of two forms of a single word in this manner ultimately gives rise to what is termed pseudo-paronomasia. Keywords: Pseudo-paronomasia, Paronomasia, Repetition, Rhetorical Device, Badīʿ.IntroductionParonomasia (pun) and repetition are two frequently occurring badīʿ devices in literary texts and, within traditional classifications of badīʿ, are regarded as branches of verbal ornamentation. The formation and application of each device are governed by specific conditions and rules; the absence of any of these conditions compromises the integrity of the device and renders it invalid. The present study focuses precisely on such partial deficiencies and the resulting disruption in the full realization of the two devices—paronomasia and repetition—which may create the mistaken impression that a paronomasia has been formed on a formal level, or that repetition has been achieved on a semantic level.In reality, however, neither device is genuinely realized. Instead, such word pairs require a distinct designation, so that readers—made aware of both their similarities to and differences from paronomasia and repetition—can correctly identify them and avoid misclassification. Materials and MethodsThe research methodology adopted in this study is descriptive–analytical, grounded in data analysis and argumentative reasoning. Initially, by consulting classical and modern badīʿ treatises in Arabic and Persian, the study presents established definitions of paronomasia and repetition in order to recall their conceptual foundations and provide a theoretical framework for the analysis. Subsequently, the proposed designation—pseudo-paronomasia—is defined and explicated. The study then examines selected textual evidence, analyzes representative examples, and finally presents its findings and conclusions. Research FindingsThe findings of this study demonstrate that certain word pairs in literary texts exhibit a distinctive dual relationship: formally—both phonologically and orthographically—they closely resemble the rhetorical device of paronomasia, while semantically they do not display the semantic divergence required for paronomasia and instead resemble repetition. This formal resemblance often leads readers to misidentify such word pairs as instances of paronomasia.To prevent this confusion, these word pairs are designated as pseudo-paronomasia. A pseudo-paronomastic structure consists of two or more words that formally resemble paronomasia and semantically resemble repetition, yet in reality fulfill the necessary conditions of neither device.The primary criterion distinguishing pseudo-paronomasia from genuine paronomasia is semantic: unlike paronomasia, no meaningful semantic difference exists between the constituent elements of a pseudo-paronomastic pair. Conversely, the distinguishing criterion between pseudo-paronomasia and repetition is formal: although the elements share identical meaning, they differ in form and are not exact repetitions in appearance. From this perspective, pseudo-paronomasia may be described as possessing the formal characteristic of paronomasia and the semantic characteristic of repetition. The authors’ preference for the term pseudo-paronomasia is therefore grounded in its formal resemblance to paronomasia rather than its semantic affinity with repetition. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsAs demonstrated above, the formal and semantic relationship between certain word pairs in literary texts constitutes a hybrid configuration of paronomasia and repetition, which may prompt readers to assume the presence of one or the other rhetorical device. Such word pairs arise through various linguistic processes, including momāl; taʿrīb and tafrīs; phonemic reduction (takhfīf) and augmentation (tazyīd); taqlīb; ishtiqāq (derivation); and phonemic transformation. Superficially, these processes cause the resulting forms to closely resemble specific subtypes of paronomasia.The primary motivations underlying these formal modifications include the preservation of metrical structure and rhyme in poetry, as well as the avoidance of overt lexical repetition in ornamental parallelism and rhetorical balance. In order to identify this category of word pairs and clearly distinguish them from genuine instances of paronomasia and repetition, the present study introduces the term pseudo-paronomasia (jinas-namā). This designation enables readers to recognize such structures as a distinct rhetorical phenomenon and prevents inadvertent confusion.Accordingly, the research questions may be answered as follows:Formally, pseudo-paronomasia resembles the device of paronomasia; semantically, however, it differs from it.Semantically, pseudo-paronomasia resembles repetition; formally, however, it differs from repetition.Because pseudo-paronomasia lacks the sufficient conditions required for either paronomasia or repetition, it cannot be subsumed under either device.Finally, it should be noted that additional word pairs of this type may also be classified under the category of pseudo-paronomasia through other linguistic procedures, a possibility that opens new avenues for further research. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29969.html The present study adopts a mixed‑methods approach, combining an empirical framework (for data collection) and a descriptive–analytical framework (for data analysis), to elucidate Saʿdi’s Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ (“deceptive simplicity”) composition strategies through the lens of artificial intelligence. In the empirical phase, a selected ghazal by Saʿdi was submitted as input to four intelligent models—Grok‑3, ChatGPT, Gemini, and DeepSeek. In the analytical phase, the outputs produced by these models were examined, compared, and evaluated, with the dual aim of both identifying the strategies underlying Saʿdi’s Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ style from the perspective of artificial intelligence and assessing the analytical potential of these intelligent tools in literary studies. The findings of the study reveal that all four AI models provided successful definitions and explanations of the Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ concept, identifying its core components in Saʿdi’s ghazal as: linguistic simplicity, depth of meaning, vivid imagery, musicality, conciseness, ambiguity, and universality. Moreover, artificial intelligence demonstrated capacities such as detecting hidden patterns, analyzing the syntactic function of prepositions, evaluating the impact of meter and rhyme, and interpreting semantic contrasts. These analyses indicate that Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ in Saʿdi’s poetry derives not only from the use of plain, fluent language, but also from an intricate network of semantic relations, subtle literary devices, and an intense experiential engagement with themes of love and the human condition. Keywords: Saʿdi; Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ (Deceptive Simplicity); Artificial Intelligence; Literary Analysis. IntroductionLiterary studies represent one of the most promising areas in which the capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI) can be meaningfully manifested. The present research seeks, on one hand, to elucidate the elements and mechanisms of Saʿdi’s Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ (“deceptive simplicity”) from the perspective of artificial intelligence, and, on the other hand, to assess, analyze, and evaluate the potential of large language models (LLMs) in interpreting classical Persian texts—here, Saʿdi’s ghazals.The study addresses the following three research questions:Does artificial intelligence comprehend the concept of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ?To what extent do AI-generated responses resemble human intellectual reasoning?Has artificial intelligence identified any strategies of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ composition in Saʿdi’s poetry that might remain unnoticed from a human perspective? Materials and MethodsThis study employs a mixed‑method design, combining an empirical and a descriptive–analytical approach to explore Saʿdi’s Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ style through the lens of artificial intelligence. In the empirical phase, a selected ghazal by Saʿdi was provided as input to four intelligent models—Grok‑3, ChatGPT, Gemini, and DeepSeek. In the analytical phase, the responses produced by these models were systematically examined, compared, and evaluated, both to explicate Saʿdi’s strategies of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ poetry as understood by AI and to assess the analytical capacities of these tools within the scope of literary inquiry. Research FindingsEach AI model articulated specific features and mechanisms underlying Saʿdi’s Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ poetry:Grok‑3 attributes Saʿdi’s mastery of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ to seven key factors:(1) simplicity and fluency of language; (2) emotional and semantic depth; (3) natural musical rhythm; (4) simple yet powerful imagery; (5) narrative coherence and internal consistency; (6) conciseness; and (7) universality and empathy.ChatGPT identifies five indicators of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ:(1) linguistic simplicity coupled with depth of meaning; (2) contrast and paradox; (3) imagery and visualization; (4) repetition and emphasis; and (5) poetical self-awareness. Its analysis follows a structuralist orientation, with special focus on linguistic microstructures—particularly the precise role of Persian prepositions.Gemini investigates the concept on two levels. At the macro level, it introduces (1) linguistic simplicity (Sahl) and (2) depth of meaning and theme (Momtaneʿ) as complementary factors, illustrating them through textual samples. At the micro level, it delineates three analytic dimensions: (1) linguistic–syntactic, (2) rhetorical–imagistic, and (3) semantic–emotional.DeepSeek enumerates six attributes that define Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ in Saʿdi’s poetry:(1) fluent and transparent language; (2) semantic depth beneath simplicity (via natural similes, subtle paradoxes, and implicit metaphors); (3) inner musicality and rhythmic flow; (4) brevity and precision; (5) universal emotions in personal expression; and (6) latent artistic delicacy (such as imperceptible allusions and harmony between sound and meaning). Discussion of Results and ConclusionsA comparative evaluation of these analyses reveals both convergences and distinctive emphases among the four AI models:Simple and Fluent Language: All models underscore Saʿdi’s linguistic simplicity as the core of Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ. ChatGPT and Grok‑3 highlight natural diction and conversational fluency, whereas Gemini and DeepSeek emphasize the lack of rhetorical complexity. The first two employ structural and statistical analyses of vocabulary and syntax, while the latter pair link linguistic simplicity to mystical depth and humanistic meaning.Emotional and Semantic Depth: Shared across all models, this dimension is accentuated differently—Grok‑3 and DeepSeek focus on affective intensity and hidden metaphors; ChatGPT and Gemini attend to semantic depth and organic imagery.Musicality and Natural Rhythm: Each model acknowledges Saʿdi’s internal rhythm and euphonic balance. ChatGPT and Grok‑3 attribute it to repetition and rhyme alignment, while DeepSeek explicates it through phonetic synergy—such as the harmony between “hearing” (samʿ) and “seeing” (baṣar) in verse 6—reflecting Saʿdi’s awareness of Persian sound patterns. Gemini analyzes this aspect less extensively.Imagery and Conciseness: ChatGPT and Grok‑3 stress the suggestive impact and economy of expression, often through wordplay and ambiguity; Gemini and DeepSeek focus on implicit metaphors (e.g., “the elixir of love”) and the balance between word and meaning.Narrative Structure and Internal Coherence: Grok‑3 and DeepSeek perceive narrative unity across the verses, interpreting the poem as an integrated emotional experience.Universality and Empathy: All AIs converge on the universality of Saʿdi’s portrayal of love. Grok‑3 ascribes it to narrative coherence, whereas DeepSeek relates it to the union of simplicity and shared human experience—together showing that Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ transcends the boundary between poetry and philosophy by transforming the individual into the universal.Artistic Subtlety: ChatGPT and DeepSeek emphasize multilayered meanings and rhetorical delicacy, while Grok‑3 and Gemini highlight artistic craftsmanship and unobtrusive allusions.Overall, the findings demonstrate that all four artificial intelligences successfully define and interpret Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ as poetry that appears deceptively simple and fluent on the surface but conceals structural, semantic, and aesthetic complexities that defy imitation. Notably, their analyses reveal the following capabilities of AI in literary studies:Pattern Recognition: Detecting recurring lexical, structural, and sensory motifs often overlooked by traditional human readings.Fine‑grained Syntactic Analysis: Investigating the semantic depth created by prepositional choices and subtle grammatical relations.Prosodic Evaluation: Assessing the influence of meter and rhyme on lexical selection and rhythmic balance.Interpretation of Semantic Contrasts: Identifying nuanced contradictions embedded within the poem’s emotional structure.Ultimately, this research indicates that Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ in Saʿdi’s poetry arises not merely from plain and fluent diction, but from a complex semantic network, refined literary devices, and profound experiential insight into love and human emotion. Through systematic analysis of these elements, artificial intelligence demonstrates an enhanced capacity to apprehend this multilayered phenomenon, revealing Sahl‑e Momtaneʿ as the fusion of linguistic simplicity with intricate semantic interrelations and the deep embodiment of the human condition. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30097.html Khawaja Nizam ul-Mulk Tusi presented his political thought in Siyasat-nameh through a preface and a series of didactic anecdotes. This work has profound literary, historical, and political layers. The present study focuses on how the secondary meanings of the imperative verbs function in the prose of Khawaja Nizam ul-Mulk. In Siyasat-nameh, the imperative is the most important part of performative (inshaʾi) sentences. Because of the didactic nature of the book, the author has most frequently used the imperative in its secondary sense of guidance and instruction. Since the text was written for kings and state officials, a close examination of Nizam ul-Mulk’s use of secondary meanings of imperative sentences not only reveals some of the reasons for the book’s success and durability but also provides a clearer insight into his political thought. Based on the findings, the highest frequency of secondary meanings of the imperative in Siyasat-nameh belongs to encouragement (targhib) and guidance (irshad), and the lowest frequency belongs to equation (taṣwiya). The results also show that Nizam ul-Mulk, in some passages—especially in the preface parts of the chapters—has expressed imperative content in declarative form out of respect for the addressee (the king). Keywords: Khawaja Nizam ul-Mulk Tusi; Siyasat-nameh; Secondary Meanings of the Imperative Verb.IntroductionKhawaja Nizam ul-Mulk is the most important theorist of political thought in the Islamic period, and his Siyasat-nameh is among the key writings of the Iranian-Islamic tradition of political advice. Its fundamental organizing idea is the notion of the ideal kingship (Ṭabaṭabaʾi, 1999, pp. 142–143). His views are the outcome of “the experience he collected over long years of vizierate, which he gathered in Siyasat-nameh, a work that today is counted among the finest Persian prose texts” (Ṣafa, 1984, p. 36).Among the political Andarz-namas that had been written in Iran before and after Islam, Siyasat-nameh holds a special position. The aim of the present study is to analyze the rhetorical aspect of imperative sentences in Khawaja Nizam ul-Mulk’s Siyasat-nameh. Attention to this aspect of the secondary meanings of imperatives is necessary because of the primary audience of the work—Sultan Malikshah Seljuq—and, as the author himself states, “all kings and holders of authority” who “cannot dispense with having and knowing this book” (cf. Niẓam al-Mulk, 1965, p. 2). To this day, and to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no independent research has been conducted specifically on the secondary meanings of the imperative in Siyasat-nameh. Materials and MethodsThis study is fundamental in nature. The data collection procedure consisted of identifying all imperative sentences in Siyasat-nameh, classifying them according to their secondary rhetorical purposes, and then analyzing the data. Finally, the findings were presented statistically and in the form of charts. Research FindingsIn this study, all imperative sentences in Khwaja Niẓam al-Mulk’s Siyasat-nameh were identified and classified on the basis of their secondary purposes. The aim, besides analyzing the different secondary meanings of the imperative, was to provide a frequency-based account of how imperative sentences with secondary meanings are used in the work. Such an investigation can help explain one of the reasons for the work’s success and longevity, and can also shed light on some linguistic features of the book and on Niẓam al-Mulk’s artistry in composing one of the finest specimens of Persian prose.The aim of the current study is the examination of the secondary meanings of the imperative in Siyasat-nameh by Khawaja Nizam ul-Mulk Tusi. For this purpose, all imperative sentences in the text were identified, analyzed, and classified. The findings show that the most frequent secondary meaning of the imperative in Siyasat-nameh is encouragement, guidance, and instruction, which is fully consistent with the didactic nature of the book. In total, 310 imperatives were used with the purpose of encouragement, and 240 imperatives with the secondary purpose of guidance and instruction. In addition, the text contains 61 imperatives in the sense of supplication (duʿa), 57 imperatives in the sense of desire (tamanni), 81 imperatives in the sense of entreaty (iltimas), 43 in the sense of seeking compassion (istirḥam), 56 in the sense of threatening, 6 imperatives with the secondary purpose of equating (taṣwiya), 73 imperatives in the sense of admonition, 36 in the sense of blame, and 11 imperatives in the sense of mockery. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, because Nizam ul-Mulk wrote the book for Malikshah and, more generally, for kings and rulers, his status as author and vizier is hierarchically lower than that of his addressee (the king). For this reason, in the prefaces to the chapters, he often conveys an imperative meaning through a declarative structure and avoids issuing a direct imperative to the sultan. Consequently, the frequency of compound metaphorical usage (i.e., using a declarative form for an imperative intent) is high in his prose. He then expands and develops these imperative notions of the preface in the form of anecdotes. Taken as a whole, Siyasat-nameh is a work of didactic literature, and therefore, in most cases, the imperative clauses are employed in the secondary sense of guidance and instruction, which is one of the most important secondary meanings of the imperative. Overall, Nizam ul-Mulk uses the imperative in the book in two main ways: first, in the prefaces to the chapters, indirectly and in metaphorical/declarative form for the purpose of practical instruction to the king; and second, within the internal discourse of the anecdotes, where he uses the imperative with a variety of rhetorical purposes. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_29995.html Comparative literature, or contrastive literature, is a branch of literary criticism that discusses the literary relationships among nations and different languages and the interaction between the literatures of various peoples. The term "comparative literature" was first used by Wilmann, a French critic and professor at the Sorbonne University. Then, another French critic, Saint-Beuve, promoted it. The works of the contemporary Iranian poet Sohrab Sepehri and T. S. Eliot, an American-British poet and literary critic, can be analyzed in the field of comparative literature. Despite climatic and linguistic differences, these two poets share commonalities in topics such as inclination toward the hidden layers of speech (metaphor), naturalism, dramatic monologue, and poetic language, and differ in other topics. Two examples of differences include the dispersion of adherence to meter and rhyme and the contrast and tension in poetic structure. The authors of the present study aim to analyze the similarities and contrasts of the thoughts of these two poets using a descriptive-analytical method, considering Sohrab Sepehri's familiarity with mysticism and Western literature and his particular attention to T. S. Eliot, which has led to the creation of similar images and motifs.   https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30159.html This study aimed to scientifically and systematically explain one of the prominent aspects of the rhetorical miraculousness of the Holy Qur’an: the precise conformity of vocabulary with contextual and semantic position. The main research question is how the interaction between words and context shapes the Qur’anic linguistic structure—a phenomenon that plays a foundational role in conveying the Qur’an’s multilayered and profound meanings. Adopting a descriptive-analytical method with an interdisciplinary approach, the study investigates the semantic, syntactic, and phonetic dimensions of Qur’anic vocabulary in connection with discourse requirements. The objectives include identifying patterns in lexical selection across varying contexts in the Qur’an, analyzing the rhetorical impact of such congruence, and providing documented examples of the Qur’an’s lexical miraculousness. Findings suggest that the Qur’an uses complex rhetorical techniques such as syntactic shifting, stylistic diversity, and strategic selection of verbs, nouns, and particles to create a coherent and meaningful structure where each word maximally aligns with the psychological and contextual demands of the audience. This systematic congruence affirms not only the Qur’an’s deep linguistic awareness but also its miraculous eloquence. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30181.html In the domain of analyzing classical Persian texts, the utilization of modern rhetorical theories can pave the way for a re-examining perspective on the linguistic and semantic structures of the texts. The general corpus of the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi, with its complex structure and highly dynamic language, is among those works whose rhetorical analysis necessitates a dynamic and flexible theory; therefore, Kenneth Burke's theory of rhetorical address has been selected as the analytical framework of this article. The aim of the research is to reveal how address is formulated in the ghazals of Shams based on the five components derived from Kenneth Burke's theory. The research method is qualitative and text-based. The findings indicate that in Shams's ghazals, the apostrophe (nida) serves as a rhetorical summons to invoke the presence of the addressee to all existence, God, the soul, and even the poet himself. The imperative, rather than implying coercion or obligation, functions as the invocative act of the speaker to call the addressee to another realm of existential experience. The questions posed in Shams's ghazals, instead of being answer-oriented, are contemplative, serving to invite wonder, summon to intuition, or awaken the addressee. Addressing the self in these ghazals acts as a construct in which the boundaries between inside and outside, self and other, 'I' and 'you,' dissolve, and performance is the passionate presence of meaning at the level of language—when language becomes, for the poet, a field of Sama and presence. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30182.html The purpose of this study is to introduce the literary face of the Kazerun region to the academic community and the students of literature. The research methodology and deta collection in this thesis are descriptive –analytical and based on library resources and reputable academic articles. The use of the eight types of norm deviation and rule addition can be observed in Pezeshkian`s poems. Among these, semantic deviation is prominently manifested in various ways and this has been achieved through the use of various literary devices such as simile, metaphor (both implied and explicit) and personification. Pezeshkian play the vocabulary and create lexical norms, and these words show his ability. He has used time norms by applying some vocabulary and ancient structures. Cement Normation is also very much in the sonnets as well as his new poems Mohsen Medesian depicts the southern space using the vocabulary of the local dialect of the south and Kazerouni. Especially in his sonnets, these local words are more commonly seen, and even reading his poems for non -natives is difficult. The nature of the southern and its evils is seen in his poetry. In medical poems, social content is social, romantic and sad, and sometimes even mystical. He has also benefited from phonetic and written norms. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30190.html .Epic is one of the oldest literary genres in world literature and, due to its fundamental characteristics, constitutes a primary domain for figurative language, of which metaphor forms the core. This study aims to elucidate the status and function of metaphorical language—particularly explicit metaphor—in Persian epic poetry through a comparative analysis of metaphors employed in the Shāhnāmeh, Garshāsp-nāmeh, Bahman-nāmeh, Borzū-nāmeh, and Sām-nāmeh. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical method based on close reading of epic texts, systematic extraction and classification of metaphors, and their analysis according to conceptual domains and frequency of occurrence. The findings demonstrate that each epic, in accordance with its thematic orientation, stylistic features, and historical context, exhibits distinct rhetorical innovations. The Shāhnāmeh, owing to its extensive influence and canonical status, functions as the central core of the Persian epic metaphorical tradition and may be regarded as the “mother text” of subsequent epics. In contrast, the Sām-nāmeh, characterized by the highest frequency of unique metaphors, a marked tendency toward compound metaphors, and a simultaneous engagement with epic and lyrical modes, represents the most innovative work within this corpus. Among conceptual domains, natural elements display the highest metaphorical frequency, followed respectively by human, lyrical, aristocratic, and mythological elements. The results indicate that the durability and superiority of Persian epic works depend not on the sheer quantity of metaphorical usage but rather on the manner and functionality of metaphor deployment. As a fundamental rhetorical device, metaphor plays a crucial role in articulating national, cultural, and mythological identity within Persian epic https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30208.html Makhzan al-Asrar is one of the most prominent works of Persian literature in the sixth century AH. It is renowned for its intricate linguistic structure and the use of diverse imaginative techniques. Among these techniques, simile is one of the most frequently employed and plays a crucial role in shaping the figurative language of this poem. Therefore, this study aims to provide a deeper understanding of this valuable work and its rhetorical artistry by analyzing the similes, their types and constituent elements. This research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, based on data extracted from the original text of the poem. The results are as follows. In terms of types of similes, the most common types are baligh, mufassal, mu’akkad, and mujmal, respectively. Furthermore, the distribution of similes in the Makhzan al-Asrar reveals that more than half of all simile types appear in the "Introductions" section of the work (with one-third of the total volume of verses). Regarding the components of simile, all four types of tenor (mushabbah) and vehicle (mushabbah -un- bih), in sensory and intellectual, as well as nine structural patterns (simple, restricted, and compound) have textual evidences. Among these, “sensory-to-sensory” and “simple-to-simple” similes are the most frequent, while “intellectual-to-intellectual” and “compound-to-simple” are the least common. Additionally, among the various markers of simile (adat-e tashbih), cho and chon play the most significant roles in constructing similes in this work. The ground of comparison (wajh -e- shabah) is also widely used and marked by poetic innovation. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30260.html In the history of Persian literature, mystical poetry represents a turning point where the function of literary devices undergoes a fundamental transformation. Using a descriptive-analytical method and drawing upon the works of Sanai, Attar, Rumi, and Hafiz, this study addresses the question of how literary devices evolved from mere ornamental tools into a language for expressing profound spiritual experiences. This metamorphosis was not merely a stylistic choice but a necessity stemming from the inadequacy of conventional language to describe mystical truth. The findings indicate that the mystic, confronted with the limitations of everyday language in describing the Infinite, is compelled to deconstruct its structures and reinvent the function of literary devices. In this process, metaphor is employed to ontologize abstract concepts; antithesis evolves into paradox (Shat’h) to reflect the “coincidence of opposites”; personification expresses the “Unity of Being”; poetic etiology (Husn-i Ta’lil) justifies a love-centric “best of all possible worlds”; hyperbole shifts from material quantitative exaggeration to a means of pointing towards the Infinite; and synesthesia transforms from descriptive ornamentation into a tool for lifting the veils between the senses. Consequently, in mystical poetry, rhetoric transmutes from “decoration” to “gnosis” and from formalism to meaning-creation, with literary devices becoming instruments for constructing and conveying the poet’s inner world. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30269.html This article examines the role and application of the conjunction ‘Vav’in the Mirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi’s Monsha’at based on transformational theory., known for his intricate and sophisticated style. In his Monsha’at, he utilized conjunctions and connective particles, especially the letter ‘Vav,’ as crucial tools for linking sentences and conveying meanings. Transformational theory, by focusing on syntactic and semantic structures, allows for a more precise analysis of the role of ‘Vav’ in creating semantic and grammatical connections within the text. The research method isquantitative and qualitative content analysis anddescription, based on the Transformational theory. The present study, through an analysis of textual examples from Monsha’at, demonstrates that ‘Vav’ in this work functions not merely as a simple conjunction but as a transformational and widely used element in organizing the text, creating diverse syntactic structures, and establishing semantic coherence. The conjunction ‘Vav’ (wich conect words/phrases) has the highest frequency with 2450 repetitions compared to the connective ‘Vav’ (wich conect clauses/sentences) with 721 repetitions. Furthermore, due to the formal and ceremonial structure and the prolixity of sentences in soltaniyyat, the conjunction ‘Vav’ (wich conect words/phrases) has the highest frequency, while the connective ‘Vav’ (wich conect clauses/sentences) has the lowest. In Qabaleh-haye nekah, where sentences are shorter, the connective ‘Vav’ (wich conect clauses/sentences) has the highest frequency, and the conjunction ‘Vav’ wich conect words/phrases) has the lowest.The main point of this article is to highlight the stylistic significance of the conjunction Vav in the text, emphasizing that he meticulously considered this stylistic element. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30278.html None of Hafez's terms have generated as much discussion as Rand. As can be seen, no term has been as clear and undemanding to research as Rand in the view of researchers of Hafez's language and thought. It seems difficult to judge this issue, because sometimes some well-known and accurate researchers have also followed the same path and have, at best, been content with their own knowledge and understanding and have considered themselves to be free from referring to Persian dictionaries. With profound and remarkable accuracy, it is clear in Hafez's poetry that the concept of Rand rarely appears alone in Hafez's poetry. Rand, in the view of Hafez Shirazi, has always been synonymous with love, intoxication, and ardent love. The concepts of Rand, a marketer, and a careless, infamous person, as the most inferior and base of beings, that is, someone who is not bound by any religion, ideology, or morality, appear only twice in Hafez's poetry, and strangely enough, he has attributed them to himself both times. This research, which was conducted using the method of description and analysis and by studying and reviewing library sources, examines Rand's positive and negative traits from his perspective and analyzes the relative self and relative other of this world-shattering Rand regarding these positive and negative traits. which shows the humility and humility of this pious and profound poet and shows Hafez to be of good character, moral, and free. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30341.html Mikhail Bakhtin is among the most influential thinkers in the field of literary criticism and the philosophy of language in the twentieth century, who proposed the "logic of dialogue" as the central core of his thought. This theory, by emphasizing polyphony, intertextuality, and the dialogic nature of language, has transformed our understanding of the phenomenon of dialogue and the formation of meaning. The present research, employing a descriptive-analytical method and relying on library sources, aims to critically examine the theoretical foundations of the logic of dialogue and its implications in the field of literary criticism. The findings of the research indicate that although this theory is rich and revolutionary philosophically and aesthetically, it faces fundamental challenges such as ambiguity in the definition of dialogue and neglect of the role of power relations in the realm of discourse. Furthermore, this theory is deficient in explaining the role of the author and the ethical responsibility of the work, and shows obvious methodological limitations when applied to non-novel texts and specific cultural-historical contexts. On the other hand, due to the plurality of truth, dialogue alone cannot convey the entire truth. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30348.html In rhetoric, sensuousness is a literary device in which two or more of the five senses are combined; or a sense is mixed with an abstract matter. Sensuousness is sometimes examined in a rhetorical context and sometimes in a linguistic and grammatical context, and its purpose is to create spiritual music and increase the impact and beauty of speech. In the Indian style, the search for new meanings through sensuousness is considered one of the important literary characteristics. In this article, which is carried out to identify and interpret the characteristics of the Indian style of ghazal, the sensuous device is an influential factor in the poetic images of Najib Kashani's ghazals; an attempt has been made to answer the question in a descriptive and analytical manner: how does sensuousness, as a poetic device, contribute to the richness of imagery and the inner music of Najib's ghazals? For this purpose, sensuousness was examined in three types: rhetorical, grammatical, and sensory in Kashani's ghazals. The results indicate that Najib Kashani used the sensuous array in his ghazals to create new and complex themes and display the power of imagination. The bold and frequent use of this array, along with its connection with other techniques, is considered one of the main factors in creating the complex, imaginative, and norm-deviating style of poetry of this period. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30353.html In the epic genre, hyperbole is far more than an ornamental rhetorical device; it constitutes the foundational ‘governing logic’ of the textual universe, representing reality not as it ‘is,’ but as it ‘ought to be.’ However, a fundamental question arises: how can hyperbole, despite transgressing the boundaries of physical reality, serve as the primary catalyst for ‘verisimilitude’ and the construction of a ‘superior realism’ within the heroic world, rather than evoking a sense of falsehood? Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, the present study explores the ontological function of this device in fostering the believability of the heroic realm by examining six verse epics: Shahnameh, Garshasp-nameh, Faramarz-nameh, Bahman-nameh, Kush-nameh, and Sam-nameh. The findings reveal that epic poets, in an effort to bridge the chasm between ‘constrained standard language’ and the ‘unbounded grandeur of the hero,’ utilized hyperbole as a tool to craft ‘hyper-space’ and ‘cosmic sympathy.’ Data analysis across four dimensions—‘geography and quantity,’ ‘atmosphere and nature,’ ‘physiology and time,’ and ‘sound and resonance’—demonstrates that hyperbole, by suspending the causal laws of the material world, enables the ‘will’ to dominate ‘matter.’ This mechanism detaches the audience from ‘linear and chronological time’ and transports them into ‘epic time’—a sacred dimension where supernatural actions are accepted not as fabrications, but as manifestations of ‘superior realism’ and ‘emotional sincerity.’ Consequently, the verisimilitude of the epic is contingent upon the internal coherence of this hyperbolic system; its removal would reduce the text to a mere historical chronicle, devoid of its essential national spirit. https://liar.ui.ac.ir/article_30421.html Since the language of conversation is the most expressive and best means of conveying concepts to the audience, many poets have used this method. Using the element of conversation to explain various political and social concepts is a common feature of contemporary Persian poetry. Contemporary poets have paid great attention to the language and music to make their conversational poems are more effective; therefore, the authors try to examine contemporary conversational poems from the two aspects of language and music in an analytical-descriptive manner based on contemporary conversational poetry and in response to this fundamental question: which linguistic creations and artistic techniques have poets used to highlight their conversations and what is their purpose? Contemporary poets who have used dialogue poems to make a greater impact on their audience with the methods of using new words, rarely, colloquial and sometimes foreign and belonging to informal accents and dialects words, combinations, lexical and syntactical archaisms have been highlighted linguistically and at the internal musical level to emphasize their words, they have used types of repetition and by using similes, metaphors, folk kennings, contradictions, proportions, sensibility, and creative contradictory images. They have developed the meaning of their dialogues in the best way possible to distance themselves from the usual norms of language and the natural logic of words and to achieve the inner persuasion of their audience to accept their thoughts and feelings.